Near-Field Nano-Optics: From Basic Principles to Nano-Fabrication and Nano-Photonics

396 Pages·1999·17.401 MB·English

by  Motoichi Ohtsu, Hirokazu Hori (auth.)

NEAR-FIELD
NANO-OPTICS
From Basic Principles to
Nano-Fabrication and
N ano-Photonics
LASERS, PHOTONICS, AND ELECTRO-OPTICS
Series Editor: H. Kogelnik
FUNDAMENT ALS OF LASER OPTICS
Kenichi Iga
NEAR-FIELD NANO-OPTICS: From Basic Principles to Nano-Fabrication
and Nano-Photonics
Motoichi Ohtsu, and Hirokazu Hori
OPTICAL-THERMAL RESPONSE OF LASER-IRRADIATED TISSUE
Edited by Ashley J. Welch and Martin J. C. van Gernert
THEORY AND APPLICATION OF LASER CHEMICAL VAPOR
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NEAR-FIELD
NANO-OPTICS
From Basic Principles to
Nano-Fabrication and
N ano-Photonics
MOTOICHI OHTSU
Tokyo Institute of Technology
Yokohama. Japan
and
HIROKAZU HORI
Yamanashi University
Ko{u. Japan
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC
Llbrary of Congress CataJoglng-ln-PubJlcatlon Data
Ohtsu, Motolchi.
Near-field nano-optics , from basic principles to nani-fabrication
and nano-photonics I Motoichi Ohtsu and Hirokazu Hori.
p. cm. -- ILasers, photonics, and electro-opticsl
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4613-7192-2 ISBN 978-1-4615-4835-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-4835-5
1. Nanostructure materials. 2. Near-field microscopy. 3. Quantum
optics. 4. Photonics. 1. Hori, Hirokazu. II. Title.
III. Series.
TA418.9.N36038 1999
621.36--dc21 99-14419
CIP
ISBN 978-1-4613-7192-2
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Kluwer Academic I Plenum Publishers 1999
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 19999
1098765432
A c.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library ofCongress
AII rights reserved
No part ofthis book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher
PREFACE
Conventional optical science and technology have been restricted by the diffraction
limit from reducing the sizes of optical and photoruc devices to nanometric
dimensions. Thus, the size of optical integrated circuits has been incompatible with
that of their counterpart, integrated electronic circuits, which have much smaller
dimensions. This book provides potential ideas and methods to overcome this
difficulty.
Near-field optics has developed very rapidly from around the middle 1980s
after preliminary trials in the microwave frequency region, as proposed as early as
1928. At the early stages of this development, most technical efforts were devoted
to realizing super-high-resolution optical microscopy beyond the diffraction limit.
However, the possibility of exploiting the optical near-field, phenomenon of
quasistatic electromagnetic interaction at subwavelength distances between
nanometric particles has opened new ways to nanometric optical science and
technology, and many applications to nanometric fabrication and manipulation
have been proposed and implemented.
Building on this historical background, this book describes recent progress in
near-field optical science and technology, mainly using research of the author's
groups. The title of this book, Near-Field Nano-Optics-From Basic Principles to
Nano-Fabrication and Nano-Photonics, implies capabilities of the optical near
field not only for imaging/microscopy, but also for fabrication/manipulation/proc
essing on a nanometric scale.
Although a variety of acronyms have been used for the near-field optical
microscope/microscopy, e.g., NSOM, SNOM, and PSTM, this book employs the
simplest and shortest one, NOM. Chapters 1, 2, 8, and 9 provide detailed theoretical
intuitive models based on the concept of interaction-type measurements of short
range electromagnetic correlations by using a spatial/temporal-frequency resonant
probe tip. Chapters 3-7 review experimental work.
v
vi PREFACE
We gratefully thank Drs. T. Saiki, R. Uma Mahewari, S. Mononobe, H.lto, K.
Kurihara, M. Ashino, M. Naya, H. Fukuda, R. Micheletto, J. D. White (Kanagawa
Academy of Science and Technology), M. Kourogi (Tokyo Institute of Technol
ogy), Drs. I. Banno and T. Inoue (Yamanashi University), and Prof. W. Jhe (Seoul
National University) for their collaborations. We also extend a special acknowledg
ment to Drs. R. Uma Maheswari, J. D. White, Y. Takiguchi (Japan Science and
Technology Corporation), S. Lathi, M. Lawrence, and S. Kasapi (Stanford Univer
sity) for their critical readings and comments on the manuscript. H.H. would like
to express his gratitude to Profs. T. Yabuzaki and M. Kitano (Kyoto University) and
Prof. K. Kitahara (Tokyo Institute of Technology) for their helpful discussions, and
also to Profs. K. Shimoda, T. Sakurai and A. Shimizu for their encouragement. H. H.
also thanks T. Matsudo, K. Tsuchiya, and Y. Ohdaira (Yamanashi University) for
their assistance and Dr. K. Kobayashi (IBM Japan) for useful comments on the
manuscript. Further, We wish to express our special thanks to Dr. L. Nagahara
(Phoenix Corporate Research Laboratories, Motorola, Inc.) for his patient reading
of the whole manuscript and valuable comments. Finally, we wish to express our
gratitude to L. S. Marchand, A. McNamara, and the production staff of Kluwer
Academic / Plenum Publishing Corporation for their guidance and suggestions
throughout the course of preparation of this book.
Motoichi Ohtsu
(Yokohama, Kanagawa)
Hirokazu Hori
(Kofu, Yamanashi)
CONTENTS
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1. Near-Field Optics and Photonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 1
1.1.1. Optical Processes and Electromagnetic Interactions ...... 1
1.2. Ultra-High-Resolution Near-Field Optical Microscopy (NOM) . . . . 4
1.2.1. From Interference-to Interaction-Type
Optical Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2. Development of Near-Field Optical Microscopy
and Related Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3. General Features of Optical Near-Field Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1. Optical Processes and the Scale of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2. Effective Fields and Interacting Subsystems. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.3. Electromagnetic Interaction in a Dielectric System. . . . . . . 15
1.3.4. Optical Near-Field Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4. Theoretical Treatment of Optical Near-Field Problems. . . . . . . .. 25
1.4.1. Near-Field Optics and Inhomogeneous Waves .. . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2. Field-Theoretic Treatment of Optical
Near-Field Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
1.4.3. Explicit Treatment of Field-MatterInteraction. . . . . . . . .. 32
1.5. Remarks on Near-Field Optics and Outline of This Book. . . . . .. 33
1.5.1. Near-Field Optics and Related Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
1.5.2. Outline of This Book ............................. , 34
1.6. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
vii
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 2. Principles of Near-Field Optical Microscopy
2.1. An Example of Near-Field Optical Microscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2. Construction of the NOM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.1. Building Blocks of the NOM System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.2. Environmental Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.3. Functions of the Building Blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3. Theoretical Description of Near-Field Optical Microscopy. . . . . 50
2.3.1. Basic Character of the NOM Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.3. Demonstration of Localization in the Near-Field
Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.4. Representation of the Spatial Localization of an
Electromagnetic Event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.5. Model Description of a Local
Electromagnetic Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.4. Near-Field Problems and the Tunneling Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.1. Bardeen's Description of Tunneling Current in STM. . . . . 57
2.4.2. Comparison of the Theoretical Aspects of
NOM and STM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5. References........................................... 61
Chapter 3. Instrumentation
3.1. Basic Systems of a Near-Field Optical Microscope. . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.1. Modes of Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.2. Position Control of the Probe .......... " . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.3. Mechanical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.4. Noise Sources Internal to the NOM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.5. Operation under Special Circumstances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2. Light Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1. Basic Properties of Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.2. Characteristics of CW Lasers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.2.3. Additional Noise Properties of CW Lasers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2.4. Short-Pulse Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.5. Nonlinear Optical Wavelength Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3. Light Detection and Signal Amplification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.1. Detector... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.3.2. Signal Detection and Amplification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
3.4. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 4. Fabrication of Probes
4.1. Sharpening of Fibers by Chemical Etching .................. 113
4.1.1. A Basic Sharpened Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
4.1.2. A Sharpened Fiber with Reduced-Diameter Cladding. . .. 118
4.1.3. A Pencil-Shaped Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119
4.1.4. A Flattened-Top Fiber ............................. 122
4.1.5. A Double-Tapered Fiber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
4.2. Metal Coating and Fabrication of a Protruded Probe. . . . . . . . . .. 130
4.2.1. Removal of Metallic Film by Selective Resin Coating .... 132
4.2.2. Removal of Metallic Film by Nanometric
Photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
4.3. Other Novel Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
4.3.1. Functional Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 139
4.3.2. Optically Trapped Probes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
4.4. References ........................................... 141
Chapter 5. Imaging Experiments
5.1. Basic Features of the Localized Evanescent Field . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
5.1.1. Size-Dependent Decay Length of the Field Intensity ..... 143
5.1.2. Manifestation of the Short-Range Electromagnetic
Interaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146
5.1.3. High Discrimination Sensitivity ofthe Evanescent Field
Intensity Normal to the Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
5.2. Imaging Biological Samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
5.2.1. Imaging by the C-Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
5.2.2. Imaging by the I-Mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
5.3. Spatial Power Spectral Analysis of the NOM Image. . . . . . . . . .. 170
5.4. References ............................................ 177
Chapter 6. Diagnostics and Spectroscopy of Photonic
Devices and Materials
6.1. Diagnosing a Dielectric Optical Waveguide ................. 179
x CONTENTS
6.2. Spatially Resolved Spectroscopy of Lateral p-n Junctions in
Silicon-Doped Gallium Arsenide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184
6.2.1. Photoluminescence and Electroluminescence
Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 185
6.2.2. Photocurrent Measurement by Multiwavelength NOM. .. 191
6.3. Photoluminescence Spectroscopy of a Semiconductor
Quantum Dot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196
6.4. Imaging of Other Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201
6.4.1. Fluorescence Detection from Dye Molecules .......... 201
6.4.2. Spectroscopy of Solid-State Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
6.5. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207
Chapter 7. Fabrication and Manipulation
7.1. Fabrication of Photonic Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209
7.1.1. Development of a High-Efficiency Probe. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 212
7.1.2. Development of a Highly Sensitive Storage Medium. . . .. 212
7.1.3. Fast Scanning of the Probe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213
7.2. Manipulating Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 213
7.2.1. Zero-Dimensional Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 214
7.2.2. One-Dimensional Manipulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216
7.3. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231
Chapter 8. Optical Near-Field Theory
8.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
8.2. Electromagnetic Theory as the Basis of Treating Near-Field
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
8.2.1. Microscopic Electromagnetic Interaction and Averaged
Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
8.2.2. Optical Response of Macroscopic Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
8.2.3. Optical Response of Small Objects and the Idea of System
Susceptibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244
8.2.4. Electromagnetic Boundary Value Problem. . . . . . . . . . . .. 245
8.3. Optical Near-Field Theory as an Electromagnetic Scattering
Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255