Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I

245 Pages·2003·7.42 MB·English

by  Eric Lohr

nationalizing the russian empire
russian research center studies,
94
Publishedundertheauspicesofthe
DavisCenterforRussianand
EurasianStudies,HarvardUniversity
Nationalizing
the Russian Empire
The Campaign against Enemy Aliens
during World War I
ERIC LOHR
harvard university press
Cambridge,Massachusetts,
andLondon,England 2003
Copyright©2003bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege
Allrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
LibraryofCongressCataloguing-in-PublicationData
Lohr,Eric.
NationalizingtheRussianEmpire : thecampaignagainstenemyaliens
duringWorldWarI / EricLohr.
p. cm. — (RussianResearchCenterstudies ; 94)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0-674-01041-8(alk.paper)
1.Russian—Ethnicrelations—History—20thcentury. 2.Minorities—
Crimesagainst—Russia—History—20thcentury. 3.Politicalpersecution—
Russia—History—20thcentury. 4.Forcedmigration—Russia—History—
20thcentury. 5.Minorities—Governmentpolicy—Russia—History—
20thcentury. 6.Minorities—Relocation—Russia—History—20thcentury.
7.WorldWar,1914–1918—Russia. I.Title. II.Series.
DK34.R9L64 2003
940.3(cid:1)086(cid:1)91—dc21 2002191913
Contents
Acknowledgments ix
Introduction 1
1 NationalistChallenges,ImperialDilemmas 10
2 TheMoscowRiots 31
3 NationalizingtheCommercialand
IndustrialEconomy 55
4 NationalizingtheLand 84
5 ForcedMigration 121
Conclusion 166
Appendix:WartimeLeaders 175
Notes 177
ArchivalSources 229
Index 235
viii Contents
Figures
1. MeetingoftheStateDumaon26July1914insupportofthe
war 11
2and3. DemonstrationsinPetrogradontheoutbreakofWorldWarI 12
4. LeadersoftheRussianArmy 13
5. AftertheMoscowriot,thedestructionatthefirmGergardi
Gei 44
6. EmptyvodkabarrelsfromthewarehouseofGergardiGei 45
7. AnotherviewofbrokenmachineryandrubbleatGergardiGei 46
8. Map.Areassubjecttolandexpropriationdecreesaffecting
individualsofGermanorAustro-Hungarianancestrywho
acquiredRussiansubjecthoodafterJanuary1,1880 101
9. Map.Majorinternmentsitesofenemy-subjectcivilians 128
10. Map.ThemassexpulsionsofJewsandthePaleofJewish
settlementuntilitsabolitiononAugust4,1915 141
Tables
1. NetimmigrationfromselectedcountriestotheRussian
Empire,1828–1915(inthousands) 5
2. ImplementationofthelawofFebruary8,1917,byindustrial
sector 72
3. Enemysubjectsdeportedbytrainduringthewar,accordingto
theMilitaryRailroadTransitDivision 127
4. GermancolonistsdeportedfromVolyniaprovinceuptoJune
22,1916 135
5. MajorareasofGermancolonistsettlement 136
Acknowledgments
My research was supported in part by a grant from the International
Research and Exchanges Board (IREX), with funds provided by the
National Endowment for the Humanities and the United States De-
partment of State, which administers the Russian, Eurasian, and East
European Research Program (Title VIII). I am grateful to the Davis
CenterforRussianandEurasianStudiesforsummerresearchgrantsin
theearlyandlatestagesoftheproject,foracrucialsemester-longpost-
doctoral fellowship, and for providing an ideal intellectual environ-
ment. I would also like to thank Mark von Hagen and the Harriman
Institute for Russian Studies at Columbia for hosting me while I was
writing.
Roman Szporluk has been generous with his time, advice, and sup-
portandhasbeenanintellectualmentorintheverybestsense.Richard
PipesorganizedanexcellentseminaronRussiain1916,inwhichIdis-
coveredthistopic.TimothyColtonandEdwardKeenanhaveprovided
much useful advice and support. Thanks also to David McDonald for
inspiring me to enter the field of Russian history in the first place and
forhishelpalongtheway.
Many friends and colleagues have read and commented on parts of
the manuscript at various stages. I am particularly grateful to Richard
Benert, David Brandenberger, Robert Geraci, Mark von Hagen, John
LeDonne, Dominic Lieven, Terry Martin, Randall Poole, and Josh
x Acknowledgments
Sanborn for reading versions of the manuscript and making many in-
sightfulcomments.GrantMainlandandKellyO’Neillprovidedexcel-
lent research and editorial assistance. Many thanks to Mark Baker,
Patrice Dabrowski, Jonathan Daly, Benjamin Frommer, Peter Gatrell,
Peter Holquist, Yanni Kotsonis, David McDonald, Kevin Murphy,
ThomasOwen,JeffreyRossman,SergeSchmemann,TimothySnyder,
andSergeTroubetzkoyforreadingandcommentingondraftchapters.
David Brandenberger’s friendship and criticism helped every step of
theway.PeterHolquisthasbeenamodelofcollegiality,engagingwith
me in a voluminous correspondence on issues related to World War I
andpointsofcommoninterest.ElizabethWoodandparticipantsinher
informalworkshoponRussianHistoryprovidedusefulcommentsatan
earlystageintheevolutionoftheproject,andworkshopsandseminars
at the Davis Center were very helpful toward the end. Peter Gatrell
generouslysharedhismanuscriptpriortopublication.ThankstoMark
Baker, Alex Dillon, Scott Kenworthy, and Tom Trice for sharing and
helping with documents. Thanks also to Kathleen McDermott,
Kathleen Drummy, and Anita Safran at Harvard University Press for
skillfullyguidingmethroughthepublicationprocess.
A partial version of Chapter 5 was published under the title “The
RussianArmyandtheJews:MassDeportation,Hostages,andViolence
duringWorldWarI”inTheRussianReview60(July2001):404–419.I
ampleasedtoacknowledgethejournalpublishers’courtesy.
My Russian colleagues provided much advice and help in formulat-
ing and conducting research for this project. Viktor Mal’kov of the
RussianAcademyofSciences,InstituteofGeneralHistory,wasanex-
cellent adviser and academic host in Russia. I would like to warmly
thank him and all the members of the Association of Historians of
World War I at the Academy of Sciences for their comments on my
work.IespeciallywishtothankEvgeniiSergeevforhisextensivehelp
in both intellectual and practical matters of research. Aleksandr
Kavtaradze, Igor Karpeev, Iurii Kir’ianov, and Sergei Nelipovich
shared their knowledge of crucial archival holdings. Staff members at
theRussianarchivesandlibrarieswereconsistentlyhelpfulandprofes-
sional.Inparticular,IwouldliketothankSerafimaIgor’evnaVarekova
and everyone at the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA), Tatiana
Iur’evnaBurmistrovaandtheentirestaffattheRussianStateMilitary-
Historical Archive (RGVIA), and Nina Ivanovna Abdulaeva at the
Acknowledgments xi
State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF). Special thanks to
SergeiandVioletaErshov,IrinaKuptsova,andAndreiMaliutinforall
theirhelp.
I especially thank my wife Anya Schmemann for her constant sup-
port and for her patience while I worked in Russia and commuted be-
tween Cambridge and New York. Alexei arrived in time to provide
many happy diversions. Most of all, the generosity and support of my
parents—RichardandJoyceLohr—madeitallpossible.
Nationalizing the Russian Empire
Introduction
a little-known but central aspect of Russia’s participation in the
FirstWorldWarwasasweepingcampaigndirectedagainstcertainmi-
norities suddenly recast by the regime and society as dangerous inter-
nal enemies. This campaign initially targeted enemy aliens, defined
by international law as citizens of enemy states in time of war. This
relatively narrow but economically and socially prominent category
wassubjectedtowartimedeportation,internment,andexpropriation.1
Russiawasbynomeanstheonlycountrytotakemeasuresagainsten-
emy citizens,2 but its campaign quickly swept up many others as well,
fromtheempire’slargepopulationofethnicGermanstoRussian-sub-
ject Jews, Muslims, and others. The campaign resulted in the forced
migration of roughly a million civilians, the nationalization of a sub-
stantial portion of the imperial economy, and the transfer of extensive
land holdings and rural properties from the targeted minorities to fa-
voredgroups.
Prior to World War I, few governments formally took measures
against enemy subjects residing on their territory in times of war,
and leading experts agreed that no rule of international law was more
strongly held than the one protecting the person and property of for-
eigncitizensinwartime.3Butnearlyallcountrieseventuallyinternedat
leastsomeoftheenemysubjectswithintheirterritory,andimposedex-
tensivetemporaryrestrictionsontheirpropertyandeconomicactivity.
1