National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic — the Case of the Northern Sea Route

378 Pages·1999·19.29 MB·English

by  Willy Østreng (auth.)

NATIONAL SECURITY AND INTERNATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION IN THE ARCTIC
- THE CASE OF THE NORTHERN SEA ROUTE
ENVIRONMENT & POLICY
VOLUME 16
The titles published in this series are listed at the end oft his volume.
National Security and
International Environmental
Cooperation in the Arctic
- the Case ofthe Northern Sea Route
Edited by
Willy 0streng
Director ofthe FridtjofNansen Institute,
Lysaker, Norway
and
Adjunct Professor at the Norwegian University
ofS cience and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-94-010-6000-4 ISBN 978-94-011-4760-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-4760-6
Printed on acid-free paper
AlI Rights Reserved
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1999
Softcover reprint of the hardcover lst edition 1999
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
inc1uding photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner
To the memory of my mother,
Mia Lilloe
INSROP -International Northern Sea Route Programme
INSROP is a comprehensive multi-national, multi-disciplinary five
year research programme designed to investigate the possibilities for
commercial navigation through the North-East Passage. The
programme is based on a mutual agreement of cooperation between
three principal partners: Ship & Ocean Foundation, Japan, Central
Marine Research & Design Institute, Russia and the Frid'ljofNansen
Institute, Norway.
CONTENTS
List ofF igures p. xi
List ofT ables p. xiii
Abbreviations p. xiv
Foreword p. xvii
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER: International Use ofthe Northern Sea
Route: What is the Problem? Willy f}streng ................................................. . p.1
• The Case of the NSR: What Makes it an International Challenge? .................... . p.2
• The Arctic Bioregion: Its Functioning, Fragility and Vulnerability ................ . p.8
Oil Pollution in Arctic Seas ....................................................................................... . p.1O
Political Implications ................................................................................................. . p.13
• Civility in Utilization ........................................................................................ . p. 16
CHAPTER 1: National Security and the Evolving Issues of Arctic
Environment and Cooperation. Willy f}streng ............................................. . p.21
• The Security and Cooperative Order of Cold War Arctic ................................... . p.21
Threat Perceptions and Security Behavior in the Cold War Arctic ...................... . p.22
The NSR and Arctic Cold War Security .................................................................. . p.23
• Arctic Security in the post Cold War Period ........................................................ . p.29
The Changing Soviet Conception of Arctic Security .............................................. . p.29
The Northern Fleet and the Reconceptualization of Arctic Security ..................... . p.31
The Emerging Russian Security Concept of the 1990s and the NSR .................... . p.33
The Western Concept of Arctic Security ................................................................. . p.34
• The Evolving Pan-Arctic Concept of Environmental Cooperation and its
Relevance to Security ............................................................................................ . p.39
The Arctic as an International Region? .................................................................... . p.45
• Summary ................................................................................................................. . p.48
CHAPTER 2: Russian Security Policy 1945-96: The Role of the Arctic,
the Environment and the NSR. Raphael Vartanov, Alexei Roginko and
Vladimir Kolossov ........................................................................................ p.53
m ••••••••••
• Evolution of Soviet Security Perceptions, 1945-1991, and Approaches Toward
the Arctic .................................................................................................. . p.S5
The Roots of Soviet Security Thinking and the Arctic ............... '" ......................... . p.S5
Contents
Evolution of Security Priorities over the Post-war Period ....................................... p. 57
Dynamic Interrelations among Political, Economic and Environmental Factors .. p. 60
The Murrnansk Initiatives and the New Political Thinking ..................................... p. 64
• Arctic Security Thinking Within the Current Political Process in Russia ....... p. 66
A Geopolitical Setting and the Role ofthe Arctic in the New Russian State ......... p. 66
Impact of Domestic Political, Socio-economic and Military Factors ..................... p. 68
National Security and the Choice between Democracy and
Authoritarianism p. 68
Role ofM ilitary Factors in Shaping Security Perceptions ....................... . p.73
The Socio-economic Situation oft he Northern Regions and the Role of
the State ........................................................................................................ . p. 77
The Problem oft he Integrity ofR ussia and the Arctic .............................. . p.81
International Factors of National Security in the Russian Arctic ........................... . p.84
• Environmental Security Issues in the Russian Arctic in the Context of
INSROP ................................................................................................................... . p.89
Environmental Threats Posed by Military and Naval Activities ............................ . p.89
Environmental Threats Associated with Natural Resources' Deve\opment... ........ . p.98
• Conclusion. .............................................................................................................. . p.101
CHAPTER 3: Environment and Security in Arctic Waters:
A Canadian Perspective. Franklyn Griffiths ............................................... .. p.103
• Canadian Security Perspectives, 1945-1997 ........................................................ . p.104
• Cooperative and Common Security as Frameworks ........................................... .. p.l13
• Securing the Arctic Marine Environment ............................................................ .. p. 122
• A Way Ahead ......................................................................................................... . p.132
CHAPTER 4: Norwegian Security Policy: The Role of the Arctic, the
Environment and the NSR. Willy Ostreng ................................................... .. p.135
• Changing Norwegian Perceptions of Threats to National Interests ................... .. p.135
• The Basic Elements ofNo rwegian Security Policy in the Post- World War II
Period ...................................................................................................................... . p.137
Geopolitical Realities ................................................................................................ . p.137
The Self-Imposed Security Regime ........................................................................ .. p.139
The International Svalbard Regime ......................................................................... .. p.140
Norwegian Political Rules of Conduct ..................................................................... . p. 145
• New Times -New Policy? ..................................................................................... . p. 148
Vlll
Contents
The "Geographical Expansion" of Security ............................................................. . p. 148
The Thematic Expansion of Security ....................................................................... . p. 149
New Geopolitical Realities? .................................................................................... .. p.150
Changes in Self-imposed Security Regime ............................................................ .. p. 155
Changes in the International Svalbard Regime? ...................................................... . p. 158
Changes in the Political Rules of Conduct .............................................................. .. p. 160
The Multipolarity oft he BEAR ................................................................ . p. 163
The Extension oft he Concept ofS ecurity ............................................ .. p. 164
Various Polities in Regional Security Policy ...................................... . p. 165
The Barents Initiative, Extended Security and the NSR ........................................ .. p. 169
The New Overall NOIWegian Security Posture: A Summing up ............................ . p. 174
CHAPTER 5: Environment in the U.S. Discourse on Security: The Case
of the Missing Arctic Waters. Franklyn Griffiths ........................................ . p.179
• Tendencies in U.S. security discourse since 1945 ............................................... .. p. 180
• Enviromnent and Security Debate in 1997 ........................................................... . p. 185
• Arctic Waters in U.S. Security Policy ................................................................... . p. 192
• Conclusions ............................................................................................................ . p.202
CHAPTER 6: Danish Security Policy: The Role of the Arctic, the
Environment and Arctic Navigation. Willy 6streng .................................... . p.205
• The Basic Elements of Danish and Green1andic Security Policy in the
• post World War II Period ...................................................................................... . p.207
• Greenland's Military-strategic Use and Potential ................................................ . p.2!0
Greenland as a Protective Shield ............................................................................. .. p.2!0
Greenland in the Maritime Strategy ........................................................................ .. p.212
• Greenlandic Security Politics ................................................................................ . p.219
The Decision-making Competence and Structure .................................................. .. p.219
A Greater Greenlandic Say in Foreign-and Security Policy .................................. . p.220
The Inuit Tradition ..................................................................................................... . p.221
Polarization ofGreenlandic Politics ......................................................................... . p.223
Increasing Pragmatism .............................................................................................. . p.224
• Greenlandic Attitudes to Arctic Shipping ............................................................ .. p.225
Greenland's own APP ............................................................................................... . p.228
• Enviromnental Security and the Danish Realm: Possible Implications for
Greenland ................................................................................................................ p. 232
• Conclusion...... ...... ....... ............ ................... ......... ....... ............................................. p. 236
IX
Contents
CHAPTER 7: The NSR in the Context of Arctic Environmental Cooperation
and National Security: Some Concluding Remarks. Willy Ostreng .......... . p.239
• Theoretical Concepts, Political Realities and International Cooperation ........ . p.239
The Fit of Words in Northern Politics ...................................................................... . p.241
Environmental Security and Arctic Security ........................................................... . p.244
Comprehensive and Extended Security and the Arctic ........................................... . p.247
Security and Cooperation in the Arctic? .................................................................. . p.248
Common Security and the Security Posture of Arctic States ................................. . p.252
• The Environmental and Security Position of the NSR .................................... . p.254
The New Pattern ofNSR Usage ............................................................................... . p.254
The New Pattern ofNSR Cooperation .................................................................... .. p.255
The New Pattern ofNSR Organization .................................................................... . p.258
• The NSR's Capacity to Build a Pan-Arctic Feeling of Community ............ .. p.260
Level of Government -International Relations ...................................................... .. p.260
Level of Regional Government -Transregional Relations .................................... .. p.263
Level ofIndigenous Government -Transcultural Relations .................................. .. p.264
Notes p.267
Selected Bibliography p.323
Index p.355
x