Nanotechnology in Food & Agriculture - Amazon Web Services

68 Pages·2008·3.67 MB·English

OUT OF THE LABORATORY
AND ON TO OUR PLATES
Nanotechnology in Food & Agriculture
March 2008
A report prepared for Friends of the Earth
Australia, Friends of the Earth Europe and
Friends of the Earth United States and supported
by Friends of the Earth Germany.
2nd edition April 2008

Written by Georgia Miller and Dr. Rye Senjen,
Friends of the Earth Australia Nanotechnology
Project.

With contributions from Patricia Cameron, John
Hepburn, Helen Holder, Guillermo Foladori,
George Kimbrell, Aleksandra Kordecka, Kristen
Lyons, Ian Iluminato, Arius Tolstoshev, Gyorgy
Scrinis, Katja Vaupel, Jurek Vengels and many
others.

Design and layout by Natalie Lowrey
[email protected]

For an electronic copy of this report, or further
Australia, Europe and U.S.A
briefing papers from Friends of the Earth please
refer to our websites:
Friends of the Earth Australia
http://nano.foe.org.au
This report was funded by Friends of the Earth United

Friends of the Earth Europe States, Friends of the Earth Europe, Friends of the Earth
http://www.foeeurope.org/activities/
Australia and Friends of the Earth Germany (BUND).
nanotechnology/index.htm
Friends of the Earth Europe gratefully acknowledges
Friends of the Earth Germany: financial support from the European Commission’s
http://www.bund.net/
DG Environment and the 31 national member groups

Friends of the Earth United States of Friends of the Earth Europe. This report does not
http://www.foe.org/camps/comm/nanotech/
necessarily reflect the opinions of its funders. The
This is a report by FoE Australia, FoE Europe and European Commission and other funders cannot
FoE United States. Any mention of “FoE” in this be held responsible for any further use that may be
report refers to the above groups and not to FoE
made of the information contained herein.
International
OUT OF THE LABORATORY
AND ON TO OUR PLATES
Nanotechnology in Food & Agriculture
s Executive Summary 2
t
n
A short introduction to nanotechnology 4
e
t Nanotechnology enters the food chain 9
n
o Nanotechnology and food processing 12
C
Nanotechnology used for food packaging
and food contact materials 15
Nanotechnology used in agriculture 19
Nanofoods and nano agrochemicals
pose new health risks 22
Nanofoods and nano agriculture pose
new environmental risks 29
Time to choose sustainable food and farming 32
Nano-specific regulation required to
ensure food safety 37
The right to say no to nanofoods 44
Recommendations for sustainable food
and farming 46
Civil society groups are already taking action
to keep food nano-free 49
Glossary 50
Appendix A: List of agriculture and food products
identified by FoE that contain manufactured
nanomaterials 51
Appendix B: Summary of EU regulations potentially
applicable to nanofood and nano food packaging 58
References 59
Executive Summary
In the absence of mandatory product access to our bodies, so they are more
labelling, public debate or laws to ensure likely than larger particles to enter cells,
their safety, products created using tissues and organs. These novel properties
nanotechnology have entered the food offer many new opportunities for food
chain. Manufactured nanoparticles, industry applications, for example as
nano-emulsions and nano-capsules are potent nutritional additives, stronger
now found in agricultural chemicals, flavourings and colourings, or antibacterial
processed foods, food packaging and ingredients for food packaging. However
food contact materials including food these same properties may also result in
storage containers, cutlery and chopping greater toxicity risks for human health and
boards. Friends of the Earth has identified the environment.
104 of these products, which are now There is a rapidly expanding body of
on sale internationally. However given scientific studies demonstrating that
that many food manufacturers may be some of the nanomaterials now being
unwilling to advertise the nanomaterial used in foods and agricultural products
content of their products, we believe introduce new risks to human health
this to be just a small fraction of the and the environment. For example,
total number of products now available nanoparticles of silver, titanium dioxide,
worldwide. zinc and zinc oxide, materials now used in
Nanotechnology has been provisionally nutritional supplements, food packaging
defined as relating to materials, systems and food contact materials, have been
and processes which exist or operate at found to be highly toxic to cells in test
a scale of 100 nanometres (nm) or less. tube studies. Preliminary environmental
It involves the manipulation of materials studies also suggest that these substances
and the creation of structures and systems may be toxic to ecologically important
at the scale of atoms and molecules, the species such as water fleas. Yet there
nanoscale. The properties and effects of is still no nanotechnology-specific
nanoscale particles and materials differ regulation or safety testing required
significantly from larger particles of the before manufactured nanomaterials
same chemical composition. can be used in food, food packaging, or
Nanoparticles can be more chemically agricultural products.
reactive and more bioactive than larger Early studies of public opinion show that
particles. Because of their very small size, given the ongoing scientific uncertainty
nanoparticles also have much greater about the safety of manufactured
2
| NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE
nanomaterials in food additives, • All deliberately manufactured
ingredients and packaging, people do nanomaterials must be subject to rigorous
not want to eat nanofoods. But because nano-specific health and environmental
there are no laws to require labelling of impact assessment and demonstrated to
manufactured nano ingredients and be safe prior to approval for commercial
additives in food and packaging, there use in foods, food-packaging, food
is no way for anyone to choose to eat contact materials or agricultural
nano-free. applications.
Nanotechnology also poses broader
The size based definition of
challenges to the development of more
nanomaterials must be extended
sustainable food and farming systems. At
a time when global sales of organic food • All particles up to 300nm in size must
and farming are experiencing sustained be considered to be ‘nanomaterials’ for
growth, nanotechnology appears likely to the purposes of health and environment
entrench our reliance on chemical and assessment, given the early evidence that
energy-intensive agricultural technologies. they pose similar health risks as particles
Against the backdrop of dangerous less than 100nm in size which have to date
climate change, there is growing been defined as ‘nano’.
public interest in reducing the distances
Transparency in safety assessment and
that food travels between producers
product labelling is essential
and consumers, yet nanotechnology
appears likely to promote transport of • All relevant data related to safety
fresh and processed foods over even assessments, and the methodologies used
greater distances. The potential for to obtain them, must be placed in the
nanotechnology to further concentrate public domain.
corporate control of global agriculture • All manufactured nano ingredients must
and food systems and further erode local be clearly indicated on product labels to
farmers’ control of food production is also allow members of the public to make an
a source of concern. informed choice about product use.
Given the potentially serious health and
Public involvement in decision making
environmental risks and social implications
is required
associated with nanofood and
agriculture, Friends of the Earth Australia, • The public, including all stakeholder
Europe and United States are calling for: groups affected, must be involved in all
• A moratorium on the further aspects of decision making regarding
commercial release of food products, nanotechnology in food and agriculture.
food packaging, food contact This includes in the development of
materials and agrochemicals that regulatory regimes, labelling systems, and
contain manufactured nanomaterials prioritisation of public funding for food
until nanotechnology-specific safety and agricultural research. People’s right to
laws are established and the public is say no to nanofoods must be recognised
involved in decision making. explicitly.
Support for sustainable food and
Nanomaterials must be regulated as
farming is needed
new substances
• The assessment of food and agricultural
• All deliberately manufactured
nanotechnology, in the context of wider
nanomaterials must be subject to new
societal needs for sustainable food and
safety assessments as new substances,
farming, must be incorporated into
even where the properties of their larger
relevant decision making processes.
scale counterparts are well-known.
Friends of 3
the Earth NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE |
A short introduction to nanotechnology
What is nanotechnology? 7,000 nm and a human hair is 80,000 nm
wide. If one imagines that a nanometre is
The term ‘nanotechnology’ does not
represented by a person, a red blood cell
describe a singular technology, but rather
would be 7 kilometres long!
encompasses a range of technologies
that operate at the scale of the building
blocks of biological and manufactured Nanotechnology is a platform
materials – the ‘nanoscale’. technology
Nanotechnology has been provisionally
The novel properties of nanomaterials
defined as relating to materials, systems
offer many new opportunities for the food
and processes which operate at a
and agricultural industries, for example as
scale of 100 nanometres (nm) or less.
more potent food colourings, flavourings
Nanomaterials have been defined as
and nutritional additives, antibacterial
having one or more dimensions measuring
ingredients for food packaging, and more
100nm or less, or having at least one
potent agrochemicals and fertilisers. In
dimension at this scale which affects
many instances the same technology
the materials’ behaviour and properties.
can enable applications across the whole
However this definition of nanomaterials is
agriculture and food supply chain. For
likely to be far too narrow for the purposes
example, nanoclay composites – plastics
of health and environmental safety
to which nanoscale clay platelets have
assessment (see below).
been added – are now used widely in
One nanometre (nm) is one thousandth food and beverage packaging, as well
of a micrometre (µm), one millionth of as in agricultural pipes and plastics to
a millimetre (mm) and one billionth of allow controlled release of herbicides,
a metre (m). To put the nanoscale into and have been studied for their use in
context: a strand of DNA is 2.5nm wide, a controlled release fertilizer coatings. The
protein molecule is 5nm, a red blood cell capacity to apply nanotechnologies
across multiple sectors not only delivers
greater returns on research investment,
but also enables companies to expand
Size based definitions
of small particles

Smaller than 100nm – a nanoparticle
Smaller than 1,000nm (a micron, or
micrometer also written as 1µm) – a
sub-micron microparticle
Larger than 1,000nm – a microparticle
A light-conducting silica nanowire wraps a beam of light around
a strand of human hair. The nanowires are flexible and can be
as slender as 50 nanometers in width, about one thousandth
the width of a hair. Photo: Limin Tong/Harvard University.
4
| NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE
commercial activities into entirely new bioavailability of nanomaterials may also
market segments and new industries. result in greater toxicity of nanoparticles
For this reason, nanotechnology is often compared to the same unit of mass of
called a ‘platform technology’. larger particles of the same chemical
In coming years and decades, composition (Hoet et al. 2004; Oberdörster
‘next generation nanotechnology’ is et al. 2005a; Oberdörster et al. 2005b).
forecast to move beyond the use of Other properties of nanomaterials that
simple particles and encapsulated influence toxicity include: chemical
ingredients to the development of more composition, shape, surface structure,
complex nanodevices, nanosystems surface charge, catalytic behaviour,
and nanomachines (Roco 2001). The extent of particle aggregation (clumping)
application of nanotechnology to or disaggregation, and the presence or
biotechnology (‘nanobiotechnology’) absence of other groups of chemicals
is predicted not only to manipulate the attached to the nanomaterial (Brunner et
genetic material of humans, animals and al. 2006; Magrez et al. 2006; Sayes et al.
agricultural plants, but also to incorporate 2004; Sayes et al. 2006).
synthetic materials into biological Some nanomaterials have proved
structures and vice versa (Roco and toxic to human tissue and cell cultures
Bainbridge 2002). Converging nanoscale in in vitro (test tube) studies, resulting in
technologies are predicted to enable increased oxidative stress, production
the creation of entirely novel artificial of proteins triggering an inflammatory
organisms for use in food processing, response (Oberdörster et al. 2005b), DNA
agriculture and agrofuels, as well as other mutation (Geiser et al. 2005), structural
applications (ETC Group 2007). This field is damage to cell nuclei and interference
known as synthetic biology. with cell activity and growth (Chen and
von Mikecz 2005), structural damage
to mitochondria and even cell death
Nanomaterials have novel properties
(Li et al. 2003). Nanomaterials now in
and pose novel risks
commercial use by the food industry, such
To put it simply: small particle size equates as nano titanium dioxide, silver, zinc and
to new particle properties, which can zinc oxide have been shown to be toxic to
also introduce new risks. Nanoparticles cells and tissues in in vitro experiments and
have a very large surface area which to test animals in in vivo studies (see Table
typically results in greater chemical 9).
reactivity, biological activity and catalytic
Nanomaterials have such diverse
behaviour compared to larger particles
properties and behaviours that it
of the same chemical composition
is impossible to provide a generic
(Garnett and Kallinteri 2006; Limbach et
assessment of their health and
al. 2007; Nel et al. 2006). Nanomaterials
environmental risks (Maynard 2006).
also have far greater access to our body
The shape, charge and size of different
(known as bioavailability) than larger
particles can influence their kinetic
particles, resulting in greater uptake
(absorption, distribution, metabolism
into individual cells, tissues and organs.
and excretion) and toxic properties
Materials which measure less than
(Hagens et al. 2007). For this reason even
300nm can be taken up by individual
nanomaterials of the same chemical
cells (Garnett and Kallinteri 2006), while
composition which have different sizes or
nanomaterials which measure less than
shapes can have vastly different toxicity
70nm can even be taken up by our cells’
(Sayes et al. 2006). Until we have a much
nuclei, where they can cause major
more comprehensive understanding of
damage (Chen and Mikecz 2005; Geiser
the biological behaviour of nanomaterials,
et al. 2005; Li et al. 2003). Unfortunately,
it is impossible to predict the toxicity risks
the greater chemical reactivity and
associated with any one material, and
Friends of 5
the Earth NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE |
each new nanomaterial must be subject risk for human health (U.K. RS/RAE 2004).
to new health and safety assessment prior However the suitability of the 100nm
to its commercial use. Maynard (2006) definition has recently been queried,
notes that “it is clear from published especially in relation to health and
toxicity studies that particle size alone environmental safety assessment. There
is not a good criteria for differentiating is growing international recognition that
between more or less hazardous materials some particles greater than 100nm exhibit
and technologies”. However particle similar anatomical and physiological
size remains an obvious, if somewhat behaviour to nanomaterials. Novel,
crude, criteria that could trigger more size-dependent behaviour seen in
comprehensive testing and particle particles which measure a few hundred
characterisation, prior to a nanomaterial nanometres includes very high reactivity,
being permitted in commercial foods and bioactivity and bioavailability, increased
agricultural products. influence of particle surface effects
and strong particle surface adhesion
(Garnett and Kallinteri 2006). Significantly,
The need to broaden the provisional
preliminary studies also suggest that some
100nm definition of nanomaterials
particles which measure a few hundred
for health and environmental safety
nanometres, or even 1,000nm, can pose
assessment
comparable health risks to particles now
The International Standards Organisation considered to be ‘nano’ (Wang et al.
(ISO) and ASTM International have not 2006; Ashwood et al. 2007).
yet agreed on a size-based or other
definition for nanomaterials. However
Governments and scientists still
many government bodies and scientific
uncertain about the best size to define
institutions have begun using the
provisional definition of nanomaterials nanomaterials
as having novel, size-dependent The size at which it makes sense to define
characteristics which are not seen in materials as ‘nano’ and to subject
larger particles of the same material. them to nano-specific health and
Typically this is defined as a particle environmental safety assessment remains
having at least one dimension existing in the topic of discussion within standards
the size range of 0.2 - 100nm (i.e. above bodies, in government and in the scientific
the atomic level up to 100nm). This size literature. We still know very little about
definition is somewhat arbitrary, but it why the properties of nanomaterials
has been considered that materials of are different from larger particles and
less than100nm in size are most likely to how factors such as size, shape, surface
exhibit novel, nano-specific properties charge etc. interact to affect toxicity
due to their increased relative surface and the particles’ biological behaviour.
area and the dominance of quantum Consequently, we do not yet know
effects in this size range (U.K. RS/RAE 2004). enough to determine the appropriate
Altered properties can include greater size limit at which materials should be
chemical reactivity, altered colour, subject to nano-specific health and safety
strength, solubility, electrical conductivity assessment, although there is growing
etc. Importantly, nanoparticles also agreement that 100nm is likely to be
have greater access to our bodies’ cells, insufficient in at least some instances.
tissues and organs than larger particles
Reflecting the considerable uncertainty
of the same material. In its 2004 report
around what size is most appropriate to
the United Kingdom’s Royal Society and
consider a material to be a nanomaterial,
Royal Academy of Engineering identified
different government agencies, research
unbound particles of less than100nm in
institutions and scientists have used
size as presenting the greatest potential
different sizes to define them. In its 2006
6
| NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE
voluntary industry notification scheme, the size and a particle’s biological behaviour,
British government defined nanomaterials given the poorly understood role of
as “having two or more dimensions up to other factors including shape, surface
200nm” (U.K. DEFRA 2006). In a 2006 report properties, charge, coatings etc. However
the Chemical Selection Working Group we also appreciate the need for a size-
of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration based trigger to ensure that particles that
(FDA) defined nanomaterials as “particles may pose novel toxicological risks are
with dimensions less than micrometer subject to appropriate new safety testing
scale [i.e. less then 1,000nm] that exhibit and regulation prior to being allowed
unique properties not recognized in in commercial foods and agricultural
micron or larger sized particles” (U.S. FDA products. Given that particles up to a few
2006). Food scientists from Australia’s hundred nanometres in size share so many
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial of the physiological and anatomical
behaviours of nanomaterials, including
Research Organisation (CSIRO) have also
the ability to be taken up into individual
defined nanomaterials as measuring up to
cells, and that preliminary studies have
1,000nm (Sanguansri and Augustin 2006).
indicated that particles in this size range
In a 2007 report on nanomaterials FDA
may pose size-dependent toxicity risks, a
chose not to offer a size-based definition
precautionary approach is warranted. We
at all (U.S. FDA 2007).
recommend that particles up to 300nm in
size are treated as nanomaterials for the
Why Friends of the Earth recommends purposes of health and safety assessment.
defining nanomaterials as less than To enable comparison of the discussion
300nm for the purposes of health and and studies cited in this report with other
environmental safety assessment literature, we restrict the use of the term
nanoparticle to particles which have at
Friends of the Earth recognises that there is
least one dimension which measures less
not a clear relationship between particle
Friends of 7
the Earth NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE |
than 100nm. However given the evidence In this report, Friends of the Earth focuses
of nano-specific biological behaviour on manufactured nanomaterials used
and related toxicity risks associated with in food and agriculture. However we
particles a few hundred nanometres in recognise that the presence of incidental
size, Friends of the Earth urges regulators nanomaterials in foods, for example as a
responsible for assessing and managing result of the wear from food processing
the health and environmental risks of equipment, could also pose new health
nanoparticles to require particles up risks which warrant consideration by
to 300nm in size to be subject to nano- regulators.
specific safety testing and regulation prior
to being permitted for commercial use in
The need to investigate the health and
food and agricultural products.
environmental implications of other
small particles
Manufactured vs. incidental
Preliminary evidence suggests
nanoparticles
that although these particles may
‘Manufactured’ nanomaterials are those
be thousands of times larger than
which are produced deliberately. They
nanoparticles, small microparticles around
include nanoparticles (e.g. metal oxides
1-20µm in size (1,000 – 20,000nm) may
such as zinc oxide and titanium dioxide),
also pose health risks. Microparticles
as well as structures created through
do not have the same bioavailability
nanotechnology such as nanotubes,
of nanoparticles and they cannot be
nanowires, quantum dots, dendrimers and
taken up by individual cells. They are also
carbon fullerenes (buckyballs), among
comparatively less chemically reactive
others (see glossary).
and bioactive than nanoparticles, and
In comparison, ‘incidental’ nanoparticles
bioactive than nanoparticles. However
are nanoparticles which are not
the reactivity and bioavailability of
manufactured deliberately, but either
microparticles remain far greater than
occur in nature or as a byproduct of
that of larger particles (Sanguansri and
industrial processes. Sources of incidental
Augustin 2006). Studies using rats have
nanoparticles, also called ultrafine
demonstrated gastrointestinal uptake of
particles in the study of air pollution,
particles measuring up to 20µm in size,
include forest fires and volcanoes, and
mainly via Peyer’s Patches in the small
high-temperature industrial processes
intestine (Hagens et al. 2007). Pathology
such as combustion, welding, grinding
studies also suggest that microparticles up
and exhaust fumes of cars, trucks and
to 20µm in size are taken up through the
motorcycles (U.K. HSE 2004). Although
human gastro-intestinal tract, translocated
humans have historically been exposed
through the body, and accumulate in
to small numbers of these incidental
secondary organs where they may be
nanoparticles, until the industrial revolution
associated with long-term pathological
this exposure was quite limited.
damage, for example the development
The emerging field of nanotoxicology of granulomas and lesions (Ballestri et al.
(the study of the risks associated with 2001; Gatti and Rivassi 2002). Granulomas
manufactured nanomaterials) is being and lesions can have serious long-
informed by our understanding of risks term health effects, leading to chronic
associated with incidentally produced inflammation and even cancer. Beyond
nanoparticles. For example, we know the need for nanotechnology-specific
that exposure to large levels of incidental regulation for nanomaterials in foods and
nanoparticles in urban air pollution causes food contact materials, Friends of the
increased incidence of disease and even Earth therefore also urges regulators to
death among vulnerable sections of the investigate the need for appropriate new
population (Yamawaki and Iwai 2006). safety assessments of small microparticles.
8
| NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD & AGRICULTURE