Table Of ContentNanosensors
Series in Sensors
Series Editors
Barry Jones and Haiying Huang
Other recent books in the series:
Nanosensors
Physical, Chemical, and Biological, 2nd Edition
Vinod Kumar Khanna
Advanced Chromatic Monitoring
Gordon R. Jones, Joseph W. Spencer
Semiconductor Radiation Detectors
Alan Owens
Radiation Sensors With 3D Electrodes
Cinzia Da Vià, Gian-Franco Dalla Betta, Sherwood Parker
A Hands-On Course in Sensors Using the Arduino and Raspberry Pi
Volker Ziemann
Electrical Impedance: Principles, Measurement, and Applications
Luca Callegaro
Compound Semiconductor Radiation Detectors
Alan Owens
Biosensors and Molecular Technologies for Cancer Diagnostics
Keith E. Herold, Avraham Rasooly
Sensors for Safety and Process Control in Hydrogen Technologies
Thomas Hübert, Lois Boon-Brett, William Buttner
Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive, and Magnetic Sensor Technologies
Winncy Y. Du
Semiconductor X-Ray Detectors
B. G. Lowe, R. A. Sareen
Portable Biosensing of Food Toxicants and Environmental Pollutants
Dimitrios P. Nikolelis, Theodoros Varzakas, Arzum Erdem, Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli
Optochemical Nanosensors
Andrea Cusano, Francisco J. Arregui, Michele Giordano, Antonello Cutolo
Metal Oxide Nanostructures as Gas Sensing Devices
G. Eranna
Nanosensors
Physical, Chemical, and Biological
Vinod Kumar Khanna
Handbook of Magnetic Measurements
Slawomir Tumanski
Structural Sensing, Health Monitoring, and Performance Evaluation
D. Huston
Chromatic Monitoring of Complex Conditions
Gordon Rees Jones, Anthony G. Deakin, Joseph W. Spencer
Principles of Electrical Measurement
Slawomir Tumanski
Novel Sensors and Sensing
Roger G. Jackson
Hall Effect Devices, 2nd Edition
R.S. Popovic
Nanosensors
Physical, Chemical, and Biological
Second Edition
Vinod Kumar Khanna
Second edition published 2021
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2021 Vinod Kumar Khanna
First edition published by CRC Press 2012
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
The right of Vinod Kumar Khanna to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Khanna, Vinod Kumar, 1952- author.
Title: Nanosensors : physical, chemical, and biological / Vinod Kumar
Khanna.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Series:
Series in sensors | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020038701 | ISBN 9780367457051 (hardback) | ISBN
9781003025559 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Nanostructured materials. | Detectors.
Classification: LCC TA418.9.N35 K48 2021 | DDC 681/.25--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020038701
ISBN: 9780367457051 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781003025559 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Dedicated to the loving memories of my late father,
Shri Amarnath Khanna,
and my late mother, Shrimati Pushpa Khanna,
for nurturing my educational career.
Also dedicated to my grandson Hansh,
my daughter Aloka, and my wife Amita
for their affection and support.
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ............................................................................................................................................................xxiii
Preface to the First Edition ..................................................................................................................................................................xxv
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................................................................xxvii
Author’s Profile ..................................................................................................................................................................................xxix
About the Book (2nd Edition) ............................................................................................................................................................xxxi
Abbreviations and Acronyms ..........................................................................................................................................................xxxiii
Mathematical Notation .........................................................................................................................................................................xli
Part I Fundamental Concepts of Nanosensors
1. Introduction to Nanosensors .........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Getting Started with Nanosensors ........................................................................................................................................3
1.2 Natural Sciences ..................................................................................................................................................................3
1.3 Physics ..................................................................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Definition of Physics ...............................................................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Branches of Physics ................................................................................................................................................3
1.3.3 Matter: Its States, Materials, and Particles .............................................................................................................3
1.3.4 Molecules, Atoms, and Atomic Structure ..............................................................................................................3
1.3.5 Mechanics ...............................................................................................................................................................4
1.3.6 Heat .........................................................................................................................................................................5
1.3.7 Sound ......................................................................................................................................................................5
1.3.8 Light ........................................................................................................................................................................5
1.3.9 Electricity ................................................................................................................................................................5
1.3.10 Magnetism ...............................................................................................................................................................6
1.3.11 Electromagnetism ...................................................................................................................................................6
1.3.12 SI System of Units ...................................................................................................................................................6
1.4 Chemistry ..............................................................................................................................................................................7
1.4.1 Definition of Chemistry ..........................................................................................................................................7
1.4.2 Elements and Compounds.......................................................................................................................................7
1.4.3 Organic and Inorganic Compounds ........................................................................................................................7
1.4.4 Subdivisions of Chemistry ......................................................................................................................................7
1.4.5 Natural and Artificial Elements ..............................................................................................................................7
1.4.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids ........................................................................................................................7
1.4.7 Periodic Table of Elements .....................................................................................................................................7
1.4.8 Chemical Change and Reaction ..............................................................................................................................7
1.4.9 Electronic Configuration (Structure) of Elements ..................................................................................................8
1.4.10 Chemical Bond ........................................................................................................................................................8
1.4.11 Oxidation and Reduction ........................................................................................................................................8
1.4.12 Acid, Base, and Salt ................................................................................................................................................8
1.4.13 Expressing Concentrations of Solutions and Gases ................................................................................................8
1.4.14 Hydrocarbons: Saturated and Unsaturated .............................................................................................................8
1.4.15 Alkyl and Aryl Groups ...........................................................................................................................................9
1.4.16 Alcohols and Phenols ..............................................................................................................................................9
1.4.17 Carboxylic Acids .....................................................................................................................................................9
1.4.18 Aldehydes and Ketones ...........................................................................................................................................9
1.4.19 Amines and Amino Acids ......................................................................................................................................9
1.4.20 Lipids.......................................................................................................................................................................9
1.4.21 Carbohydrates .........................................................................................................................................................9
1.4.22 Proteins and Enzymes ...........................................................................................................................................10
1.5 Biology ...............................................................................................................................................................................10
1.5.1 What Is Biology? ...................................................................................................................................................10
vii
viii Contents
1.5.2 Branches of Biology ..............................................................................................................................................10
1.5.3 Origin and Evolution of Life .................................................................................................................................10
1.5.4 The Cell .................................................................................................................................................................10
1.5.5 Differences between Bacteria and Viruses ...........................................................................................................11
1.5.6 Heredity, Chromosomes, Genes, and Related Terms ...........................................................................................11
1.6 Semiconductor Electronics .................................................................................................................................................11
1.6.1 What Is Semiconductor Electronics? ....................................................................................................................11
1.6.2 Energy Bands in Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators ............................................................................11
1.6.3 Interesting Properties of Semiconductors .............................................................................................................11
1.6.4 P–N Junction .........................................................................................................................................................13
1.6.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor ...................................................................................................................................13
1.6.6 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor ...........................................................................................13
1.6.7 Analog and Digital Circuits ..................................................................................................................................14
1.7 Nanometer and Appreciation of Its Magnitude .................................................................................................................15
1.8 Nanoscience and Nanotechnology .....................................................................................................................................15
1.9 Nanomaterials and the Unusual Behavior at Nanoscales ..................................................................................................16
1.10 Moving toward Sensors and Transducers: Meaning of Terms “Sensors” and “Transducers” ..........................................17
1.11 Definition of Sensor Parameters and Characteristics .........................................................................................................18
1.12 Evolution of Semiconductor-Based Microsensors .............................................................................................................18
1.13 From the Macrosensor to the Microsensor Age and the Necessity for Nanoscale Measurements ...................................18
1.13.1 A Miniaturized Sensor Can Accomplish Many Tasks That a Bulky Device Cannot Perform ............................18
1.13.2 The Issue of Power Consumption .........................................................................................................................19
1.13.3 Low Response Times ............................................................................................................................................19
1.13.4 Multi-Analyte Detection and Multifunctionality .................................................................................................19
1.13.5 Sensitivity Considerations and Need for Functionalization .................................................................................20
1.13.6 Interfacing with Biomolecules ..............................................................................................................................20
1.13.7 Low Costs .............................................................................................................................................................20
1.13.8 Possibility of a New Genre of Devices .................................................................................................................20
1.14 Definition and Classification of Nanosensors ....................................................................................................................20
1.15 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Nanosensors ..............................................................................................................21
1.16 Some Examples of Nanosensors ........................................................................................................................................22
1.16.1 Common Nanosensors ..........................................................................................................................................22
1.16.2 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nanosensors .................................................................................................................22
1.16.3 Nanoscaled Thin-Film Sensors .............................................................................................................................22
1.16.4 Microcantilever- and Nanocantilever-Enabled Nanosensors ................................................................................22
1.17 Getting Familiar with Analytical and Characterization Tools: Microscopic Techniques to View Nanomaterials
and Nanosensors ................................................................................................................................................................22
1.17.1 Scanning Electron Microscope .............................................................................................................................23
1.17.2 Transmission Electron Microscope ......................................................................................................................23
1.17.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope ..........................................................................................................................23
1.17.4 Atomic Force Microscope.....................................................................................................................................23
1.18 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analyzing Chemical Composition of Nanomaterials and Nanosensors ...........................25
1.18.1 Infrared Spectroscopy ...........................................................................................................................................25
1.18.2 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy ..........................................................................................................................26
1.18.3 Raman Spectroscopy ............................................................................................................................................27
1.18.4 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDX) ...................................................................................................27
1.18.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy ...............................................................................................................................27
1.18.6 X-Ray Diffraction .................................................................................................................................................27
1.18.7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy or Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis .......................................27
1.18.8 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry .......................................................................................................................28
1.19 The Displacement Nanosensor: STM ................................................................................................................................28
1.19.1 Principle of Operation ...........................................................................................................................................28
1.19.2 Transmission Coefficient ......................................................................................................................................29
1.19.3 Tunneling Current .................................................................................................................................................32
1.19.4 Measurements with STM ......................................................................................................................................33
1.19.4.1 Topography ...........................................................................................................................................33
1.19.4.2 Density of States ...................................................................................................................................33
1.19.4.3 Linecut ..................................................................................................................................................34
1.19.4.4 DOS Map ..............................................................................................................................................34
Contents ix
1.20 The Force Nanosensor: AFM ............................................................................................................................................34
1.20.1 Operating Principle ...............................................................................................................................................34
1.20.2 Lennard-Jones Potential and the Van der Waals Forces .......................................................................................34
1.20.3 Other Forces and Potentials ..................................................................................................................................36
1.20.4 Force Sensor (Cantilever) and Force Measurement ..............................................................................................37
1.20.5 Static and Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy ...................................................................................................38
1.20.6 Classification of Modes of Operation of AFM on the Basis of Contact ...............................................................38
1.20.6.1 Contact Mode .......................................................................................................................................38
1.20.6.2 Noncontact Mode .................................................................................................................................39
1.20.6.3 Tapping Mode (Intermittent-Contact Mode) ........................................................................................39
1.20.7 Frequency-Modulation Atomic Force Microscopy ...............................................................................................39
1.20.8 Generic Calculation ..............................................................................................................................................40
1.21 Outline and Organization of the Book ..............................................................................................................................41
1.22 Discussion and Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................42
Review Exercises ............................................................................................................................................................................42
References ......................................................................................................................................................................................43
Part II Nanomaterials and Micro/Nanofabrication Facilities
2. Materials for Nanosensors ...........................................................................................................................................................47
2.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................................................47
2.2 Nanoparticles or Nanoscale Particles, the Importance of the Intermediate Regime between Atoms and
Molecules, and Bulk Matter ...............................................................................................................................................47
2.3 Classification of Nanoparticles on the Basis of Their Composition and Occurrence .......................................................47
2.4 Core-/Shell-Structured Nanoparticles ...............................................................................................................................48
2.4.1 Inorganic Core/Shell Nanoparticles ......................................................................................................................48
2.4.2 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Core/Shell Nanoparticles ..........................................................................................49
2.5 Shape Dependence of Properties at the Nanoscale ...........................................................................................................49
2.6 Dependence of Properties of Nanoparticles on Particle Size ............................................................................................49
2.7 Surface Energy of a Solid ..................................................................................................................................................49
2.8 Metallic Nanoparticles and Plasmons ...............................................................................................................................50
2.8.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance on Bulk Metals .......................................................................................................51
2.8.2 Surface Plasmon Band Phenomenon in Metal Nanoparticles ..............................................................................53
2.9 Optical Properties of Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles ........................................................................................53
2.9.1 Light Absorption by Bulk Metals and Metallic Nanoparticles ............................................................................53
2.9.2 Light Scattering by Nanoparticles ........................................................................................................................56
2.10 Parameters Controlling the Position of Surface Plasmon Band of Nanoparticles .............................................................56
2.10.1 Effect of the Surrounding Dielectric Medium ......................................................................................................56
2.10.2 Influence of Agglomeration-Preventing Ligands and Stabilizers .........................................................................57
2.10.3 Effect of Nanoparticle Size and Shape .................................................................................................................57
2.10.4 Compositional Effect ............................................................................................................................................57
2.11 Quantum Confinement .......................................................................................................................................................57
2.11.1 Quantum Confinement in Metals ..........................................................................................................................58
2.11.2 Quantum Confinement in Semiconductors ...........................................................................................................58
2.11.3 Bandgap Energies .................................................................................................................................................59
2.11.4 Bandgap Behavior Explanation by Particle-in-a-One-Dimensional Box Model of Electron Behavior ...............59
2.12 Quantum Dots ....................................................................................................................................................................62
2.12.1 Fundamentals ........................................................................................................................................................62
2.12.2 Tight-Binding Approach to Optical Bandgap (Exciton Energy) Versus Quantum Dot Size................................63
2.12.3 Comparison of Quantum Dots With Organic Fluorophores ................................................................................65
2.12.4 Types of Quantum Dots Depending on Composition ...........................................................................................67
2.12.5 Classification of Quantum Dots Based on Structure ............................................................................................67
2.12.6 Capping Molecules or Ligands on the Surfaces of Quantum Dots ......................................................................67
2.13 Carbon Nanotubes .............................................................................................................................................................68
2.13.1 What Are Carbon Nanotubes? ..............................................................................................................................68
2.13.2 Structure of Graphene ...........................................................................................................................................69
2.13.3 Structure of SWCNTs ...........................................................................................................................................69
