Nanosatellites: Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics

707 Pages·2020·37.272 MB·English

by  Rogério Atem de Carvalho, Jaime Estela, Martin Langer

Nanosatellites

Nanosatellites
Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics
Edited by
Rogerio Atem de Carvalho
ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedandAerospaceSystems(CRSEA)
PolodeInovaçãoCamposdosGoytacazes(PICG)
InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF)
Brazil
Jaime Estela
SpectrumAerospaceGroup
Germering
Germany
Martin Langer
InstituteofAstronautics
TechnicalUniversityofMunich
Garching
Germany
and
OrbitalOracleTechnologiesGmbH
Munich
Germany
Thiseditionfirstpublished2020
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Carvalho,RogérioAtemde,author.|Estela,Jaime,1972-author.|
Langer,Martin,1986-author.
Title:Nanosatellites:spaceandgroundtechnologies,operationsand
economics/ProfessorRogerioAtemdeCarvalho,UniversityofFluminese,
Rio,Brazil,JaimeEstela,SpectrumAerospaceGroup,Germering,Germany,
MartinLanger,TechnicalUniversityofMunich&OrbitalOracle
TechnologiesGmbH,Bavaria,Germany.
Description:Firstedition.|Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,[2020]|Includes
bibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2019049523(print)|LCCN2019049524(ebook)|ISBN
9781119042037(hardback)|ISBN9781119042068(adobepdf)|ISBN
9781119042051(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Microspacecraft.
Classification:LCCTL795.4.C372020(print)|LCCTL795.4(ebook)|DDC
629.46–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049523
LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049524
CoverDesign:Wiley
CoverImage:©StocktrekImages/GettyImages
Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
ListofContributors xxiii
Foreword:NanosatelliteSpaceExperiment xxix
IntroductionbytheEditors xxxv
1I-1 ABriefHistoryofNanosatellites 1
SiegfriedW.Janson
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 HistoricalNanosatelliteLaunchRates 1
1.3 TheFirstNanosatellites 3
1.4 TheLargeSpaceEra 8
1.5 TheNewSpaceEra 12
1.5.1 TechnologyDevelopment 18
1.5.2 CommercialNanosatellitesandConstellations 22
1.6 Summary 23
References 24
2I-2a On-boardComputerandDataHandling 31
JaimeEstelaandSergioMontenegro
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 History 31
2.3 SpecialRequirementsforSpaceApplications 34
2.4 Hardware 35
2.4.1 Components 35
2.4.2 BriefHistoryofOn-boardComputers 36
2.4.3 Processors 37
2.4.3.1 FieldProgrammableGateArray(FPGA) 38
2.4.4 MassMemory 39
2.4.5 Bus 40
2.5 Design 41
2.5.1 SystemArchitecture 41
2.5.2 CentralVersusDistributedProcessing 43
2.5.3 DesignCriteria 44
2.5.4 DefinitionofRequirements 45
vi Contents
2.5.5 ResourceEstimationandDataBudget 45
2.5.5.1 DataBudgetAnalysis 47
2.5.6 Commanding 47
2.5.7 Telemetry 48
2.5.8 TimeGeneration 48
2.5.9 HandlingofErrors 48
2.5.10 RadiationEffects 49
References 49
3I-2b OperationalSystems 51
LucasRamosHissaandRogerioAtemdeCarvalho
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 RTOSOverview 51
3.3 RTOSonOn-boardComputers(OBCs):RequirementsforaSmallSatellite 52
3.3.1 Requirements 54
3.4 ExampleProjects 55
3.5 Conclusions 56
References 59
4I-2c AttitudeControlandDetermination 61
WillemH.SteynandVaiosJ.Lappas
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 ADCSFundamentals 61
4.3 ADCSRequirementsandStabilizationMethods 62
4.4 ADCSBackgroundTheory 65
4.4.1 CoordinateFrameDefinitions 65
4.4.2 AttitudeKinematics 65
4.4.3 AttitudeDynamics 66
4.5 AttitudeandAngularRateDetermination 66
4.5.1 TRIADQuaternionDetermination 67
4.5.2 KalmanRateEstimator 67
4.5.2.1 SystemModel 68
4.5.2.2 MeasurementModel 68
4.5.3 Full-StateExtendedKalmanFilterEstimator 70
4.6 AttitudeandAngularRateControllers 72
4.6.1 DetumblingMagneticControllers 72
4.6.2 Y-MomentumWheelController 73
4.6.3 Three-axisReactionWheelController 74
4.7 ADCSSensorandActuatorHardware 75
4.7.1 Three-AxisMagnetometers 75
4.7.2 SunSensors 77
4.7.3 StarTrackers 77
4.7.4 MEMSRateSensors 78
4.7.5 Magnetorquers 79
4.7.6 Reaction/MomentumWheels 80
Contents vii
4.7.7 OrbitControlSensorsandActuators 81
4.7.8 IntegratedADCSModules 81
References 83
5I-2d PropulsionSystems 85
FlaviaTataNardini,MicheleColetti,AlexanderReissner,andDavidKrejci
5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 PropulsionElements 86
5.3 KeyElementsintheDevelopmentofMicropropulsionSystems 87
5.4 PropulsionSystemTechnologies 90
5.4.1 ChemicalPropulsionTechnologies 90
5.4.1.1 ColdGasThruster 90
5.4.1.2 MonopropellantEngines 90
5.4.1.3 BipropellantEngines 92
5.4.1.4 SolidPropellantEngines 92
5.4.2 ElectricPropulsionTechnologies 93
5.4.2.1 Resistojet 93
5.4.2.2 GriddedIonEngine(GIE) 93
5.4.2.3 HallEffectThruster 94
5.4.2.4 PulsedPlasmaThruster(PPT)andVacuumArcThruster(VAT) 95
5.4.2.5 Colloid/ElectrosprayandField-emissionThruster 96
5.5 MissionElements 98
5.5.1 OrbitChange 98
5.5.2 DragCompensation 99
5.5.3 Deorbiting 100
5.5.4 AttitudeControl 101
5.6 SurveyofAllExistingSystems 101
5.7 FutureProspect 113
References 113
6I-2e Communications 115
NicolasAppel,SebastianRückerl,MartinLanger,andRolf-DieterKlein
6.1 Introduction 115
6.2 RegulatoryConsiderations 116
6.3 SatelliteLinkCharacteristics 117
6.3.1 DigitalModulation 121
6.4 ChannelCoding 123
6.4.1 ConvolutionalCodes 125
6.4.2 BlockCodes 125
6.5 DataLinkLayer 126
6.6 Hardware 128
6.6.1 Antennas 128
6.6.2 Oscillators 130
6.6.3 PLLsandSynthesizers 132
6.6.4 Mixers 135
viii Contents
6.6.5 Receiver 137
6.6.6 Transmitter 137
6.6.7 Transceivers 138
6.7 Testing 138
6.7.1 ModulationQuality 138
6.7.2 PowerMeasurement 139
6.7.3 SpectrumAnalysis 140
References 140
7I-2f StructuralSubsystem 143
KenanY.S¸anl𝚤türk,MuratSüer,andA.RüstemAslan
7.1 DefinitionandTasks 143
7.2 ExistingState-of-the-ArtStructuresforCubeSats 145
7.3 MaterialsandThermalConsiderationsforStructuralDesign 150
7.4 DesignParametersandTools 152
7.4.1 StructuralDesignParameters 153
7.4.2 ThermalDesignConsiderations 157
7.5 DesignChallenges 162
7.6 FutureProspects 163
References 164
8I-2g PowerSystems 167
MarcosCompadre,AusiasGarrigós,andAndrewStrain
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 PowerSource:PhotovoltaicSolarCellsandSolarArray 170
8.3 EnergyStorage:Lithium-ionBatteries 172
8.4 SA-batteryPowerConditioning:DETandMPPT 175
8.5 BatteryChargingControlLoops 178
8.6 BusPowerConditioningandDistribution:LoadConvertersandDistribution
Switches 179
8.7 FlightSwitchSubsystem 183
8.8 DC/DCConverters 183
8.8.1 BuckConverter 184
8.8.2 BoostConverter 185
8.8.3 SEPICConverter 186
8.9 PowerSystemSizing:PowerBudget,SolarArray,andBatterySelection 187
8.10 Conclusions 191
References 191
9I-2h ThermalDesign,Analysis,andTest 193
PhilippReiss,MatthiasKillian,andPhilippHager
9.1 Introduction 193
9.1.1 ThermalChallenges 194
9.2 TypicalThermalLoads 194
9.2.1 HeatExchangeCalculation 195
Contents ix
9.2.2 ThermalEnvironmentinEarthOrbit 197
9.2.2.1 DirectSolarRadiation 197
9.2.2.2 AlbedoRadiation 199
9.2.2.3 EarthInfraredRadiation 199
9.3 ActiveandPassiveDesigns 200
9.3.1 SurfaceFinishes 200
9.3.2 Insulation 201
9.3.3 Radiators 202
9.3.4 InterfaceConnectionsandHeatPipes 203
9.3.5 ElectricalHeaters 204
9.4 DesignApproachandTools 204
9.4.1 NumericalMethods 204
9.4.2 ModelingApproaches 205
9.4.2.1 Top-DownApproach 205
9.4.2.2 Bottom-UpApproach 206
9.4.3 ModelUncertaintyandMargins 207
9.4.3.1 ModelingUncertainty 207
9.4.3.2 TemperatureMargins 208
9.4.4 ThermalDesignTools 208
9.5 ThermalTests 208
9.5.1 TypesofThermalTest 209
9.5.1.1 ThermalBalanceTest 209
9.5.1.2 Thermal-VacuumTest 210
9.5.1.3 ThermalCycleTest 210
9.5.2 GuidelinesforThermal-VacuumTestPreparations 211
References 212
10I-2i SystemsEngineeringandQualityAssessment 215
LucasLopesCosta,GeilsonLoureiro,EduardoEscobarBürger,andFrancieleCarlesso
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 SystemsEngineeringDefinitionandProcess 216
10.2.1 ArchitectureDevelopmentProcess 219
10.3 SpaceProjectManagement:RoleofSystemsEngineers 222
10.4 ECSSandOtherStandards 225
10.5 Document,RiskControl,andResources 228
10.6 ChangingTrendsinSEandQualityAssessmentforNanosatellites 233
References 233
11I-2j IntegrationandTesting 235
EduardoEscobarBürger,GeilsonLoureiro,andLucasLopesCosta
11.1 Introduction 235
11.1.1 Integration 236
11.1.2 Testing 236
11.2 OverallTasks 236
11.2.1 IntegrationTasks 237