Nanofiltration, 2 Volume Set: Principles, Applications, and New Materials

1221 Pages·2021·41.886 MB·English

by  Andrea Iris Schäfer (editor), Anthony G. Fane (editor)

Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration
Principles,Applications,andNewMaterials
Volume1
Editedby
AndreaIrisSchäfer
AnthonyG.Fane
SecondEdition
Nanofiltration
Principles,Applications,andNewMaterials
Volume2
Editedby
AndreaIrisSchäfer
AnthonyG.Fane
SecondEdition
Editors AllbookspublishedbyWILEY-VCH
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v
Contents
Volume1
Foreword(SecondEdition,2020) xiii
Foreword(FirstEdition,2005) xv
Acknowledgements xvii
Dedication xxi
Introduction xxiii
PartI Principles 1
1 HistoryofNanofiltrationMembranesfrom1960to
1990 3
CharlesLinderandOraKedem
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Introduction 4
1.3 First-GenerationNFMembranes 5
1.3.1 CelluloseAcetateAsymmetricMembranes 5
1.3.2 DeficienciesinCellulosicMembranes 8
1.3.3 PolyelectrolyteComplexes 8
1.3.4 PolyamideMembranes 9
1.3.5 PolysulfonesandOtherPolymerMembranes 9
1.4 EarlyStudiesofChargedReverseOsmosis(Hyperfiltration)
Membranes 10
1.4.1 DynamicMembranes 10
1.4.2 PolyelectrolyteMembranes 10
1.5 EarlyModelsofNFSelectivity 10
1.6 NegativeSaltRejection 13
1.6.1 SolutionsofOneElectrolyte 13
1.6.2 SeparationbyNegativeSaltRejection 13
1.7 EarlyDevelopmentofIndustrialNF:IonicModificationof
AsymmetricCelluloseAcetate 13
1.8 EarlyNFComposites 15
1.8.1 General 15
vi Contents
1.8.2 PlasmaPolymerization 18
1.8.3 GraftPolymerization 18
1.9 NFCompositesofthe1980s 18
1.9.1 PiperazineamideMembranes 18
1.9.2 OtherNFInterfaciallyProducedComposites 20
1.9.3 ModificationofROMembraneCompositestoBringThemintothe
NFRange 20
1.10 CompositesProducedbyNoninterfacialCross-linking 21
1.10.1 PolyvinylAlcoholComposites 21
1.10.2 SulfonatedEngineeringPlasticsasSelectiveBarriers 22
1.10.3 Polyethyleneimine 22
1.11 ChemicallyStableNFMembranes 23
1.11.1 ChemicallyStablePolymericAsymmetricMembranes 23
1.11.2 OxidantandpH-StableCompositeMembranes 23
1.11.3 Solvent-StableNFComposites 24
1.11.4 ChemicallyStableInorganicNFandPolymeric/Inorganic
Hybrids 26
1.12 Conclusions 27
Abbreviations 28
References 28
2 NanofiltrationMembraneMaterialsandPreparation 35
HanneMariën,RheaVerbeke,andIvoF.J.Vankelecom
2.1 GeneralIntroduction 35
2.2 PhaseInversion 36
2.2.1 Introduction 36
2.2.2 BasicPrinciples 37
2.2.3 PolymerType 40
2.2.4 CastingSolution 40
2.2.5 PostcastingEvaporation 44
2.2.6 CoagulationBath 45
2.2.7 Post-treatment 46
2.3 InterfacialPolymerization 47
2.3.1 Introduction 47
2.3.2 SupportMaterials 48
2.3.3 Monomers 49
2.3.4 MonomerConcentrationsandReactionTime 58
2.3.5 Solvent 58
2.3.6 Additives 59
2.3.7 NewApproaches 60
2.3.8 Post-treatment 61
2.4 Coating 61
2.4.1 Introduction 61
2.4.2 Examples 62
2.5 SurfaceModification 63
2.5.1 Introduction 63
2.5.2 PlasmaTreatment 63
2.5.3 OrganicReactions 63
2.5.4 PolymerGrafting 64
Contents vii
2.5.5 PhotochemicalModification 65
2.6 CeramicMembranes 65
2.6.1 Introduction 65
2.6.2 GeneralSynthesisProcedure 65
2.6.3 MembraneTypes 67
2.6.4 Supports 69
2.6.5 SurfaceModification 69
2.7 HollowFiberPreparation 71
2.7.1 Introduction 71
2.7.2 GeneralSynthesisProcedure 71
2.7.3 CompositeHollowFiberMembranes 72
2.8 CommercialandNovel(SR)NFMembranes 72
2.8.1 Commercial(SR)NFMembranes 72
2.8.2 Novel(SR)NFMembranes 76
2.9 Outlook 77
Acknowledgements 78
Abbreviations 78
References 79
3 NanofiltrationModuleDesignandOperation 95
TzyyHaurChongandAnthonyG.Fane
3.1 Introduction 95
3.1.1 RoleoftheModule 95
3.1.2 ConcentrationPolarizationandCross-Flow 96
3.1.3 Fouling 101
3.2 ModuleTypesandCharacteristics 102
3.2.1 PlateandFrame 102
3.2.2 SpiralWound 103
3.2.3 Tubular 104
3.2.4 HollowFiberandCapillary 105
3.2.5 Others 106
3.2.6 ModuleCharacteristics 108
3.3 SpiralWoundModule(SWM)–DesignFeatures 110
3.3.1 FeedChannelSpacers 110
3.3.2 ModelingandOptimization 112
3.4 StrategiestoImproveControlofConcentrationPolarization 116
3.4.1 ProcessLimitationbyConcentrationPolarization 116
3.4.2 HighShear–VibratingtheMembrane 117
3.4.3 HighShear–Rotor/StatorModules 119
3.4.4 Two-PhaseFlow 119
3.4.5 UnsteadyShearComparison 120
3.5 SystemDesignandOperation 120
3.5.1 SystemConfigurations 121
3.5.2 Diafiltration 124
3.5.3 Reflux-RecycleCascade(CombiningROandNF) 124
3.5.4 BatchOperation–EnergySaving(ClosedCircuit) 126
3.6 Conclusions 128
Nomenclature 130
Subscripts 131
viii Contents
GreekSymbols 131
Abbreviations 131
References 131
4 NanofiltrationMembraneCharacterization 137
AnthonySzymczykandViatcheslavFreger
4.1 Introduction 137
4.2 StructuralCharacteristics 139
4.2.1 Microscopy 139
4.2.2 PoreSize 141
4.2.3 ThicknessandMorphologyoftheActiveLayer 146
4.2.4 SurfaceCharacteristics 147
4.2.5 MembraneSwellingandSolventUptake 149
4.2.6 ChemicalStructure 150
4.2.7 MechanicalProperties 153
4.3 ChargeRelatedParameters 154
4.3.1 ElectrokineticMeasurements 154
4.3.2 TitrationandIonExchange 159
4.3.3 MembranePotential 160
4.3.4 ElectrochemicalImpedanceSpectroscopy 160
4.4 NanofiltrationMembranesforNonaqueousSystems 163
4.5 Conclusions 165
Nomenclature 166
GreekSymbols 167
Abbreviations 168
References 168
5 ModelingNanofiltrationofElectrolyteSolutions 183
AndriyYaroshchuk,MerlinL.Bruening,andEmiliyZholkovskiy
5.1 Introduction 183
5.2 BasicEquationsandConcepts 185
5.2.1 DerivationofEquations 185
5.2.2 SolutionofTransportEquationsforMacroscopicallyHomogeneous
Membranes:SingleSaltsandTraceIons 191
5.2.3 SpecificationofPhenomenologicalCoefficientsWithintheScopeof
aModelofStraight,NarrowCapillaries 196
5.3 NanoporeModelsofNF 197
5.3.1 StericExclusionandHindrance 197
5.3.2 LocalEquilibriumPartitioningMechanisms 200
5.4 Solution-Diffusion-ElectromigrationModelsofNanofiltration 215
5.4.1 AnAnalyticalSolutiontoTransportofTheeIonswithDifferent
Charges 215
5.4.2 DeterminingSingle-IonPermeancesUsingNFwithTrace
Ions 220
5.4.3 “Under-Osmotic”Operation 222
5.4.4 DeviationsfromLocalElectricalNeutralityinUltrathinBarrier
Layers 223
5.5 Conclusions 228
Acknowledgements 230
Nomenclature 231
Contents ix
GreekSymbols 233
Abbreviations 234
References 234
6 ChemicalSpeciationEffectsinNanofiltration
Separation 243
T.DavidWaite
6.1 Introduction 243
6.2 ChemicalSpeciation 243
6.2.1 EffectofIonicStrengthonChemicalSpeciation 245
6.2.2 EffectsofTemperatureandPressureonChemicalSpeciation 247
6.3 ReviewofEffectsofSoluteSize,Charge,andConcentrationon
RejectionbyNFMembranes 249
6.4 SolutionProcessesInfluencingSpeciationandRejection 249
6.4.1 Acid–BaseTransformations 250
6.4.2 Complexation 257
6.4.3 Precipitation 260
6.4.4 Oxidation–Reduction 264
6.4.5 Adsorption 265
6.5 EffectofConcentrationPolarizationonSpeciationand
Rejection 267
6.5.1 ExceedanceofSolubilityProductandPrecipitationofSolids 268
6.5.2 AggregationofMacromoleculesandPrecipitatedSolids 268
6.5.3 FormationofAlternativeComplexesandMultinuclearSpecies 268
6.6 Conclusions 269
NomenclatureandSymbols 270
Abbreviations 270
References 271
7 FoulinginNanofiltration 273
AndreaI.Schäfer,NikolaosAndritsos,AnastasiosJ.Karabelas,
EricM.V.Hoek,RenéSchneider,andMarianneNyström
7.1 Introduction 273
7.2 FoulingCharacterization 277
7.2.1 FluxMeasurementandFoulingProtocols 277
7.2.2 NormalizationofMembranePerformance 279
7.2.3 WaterFoulingPotential 280
7.2.4 MembraneAutopsy 284
7.3 FoulingMechanisms 286
7.3.1 ConcentrationPolarization(CP) 288
7.3.2 OsmoticPressure 290
7.3.3 SoluteAdsorption 291
7.3.4 GelLayerFormation 292
7.3.5 CakeFormationandPoreBlocking 293
7.3.6 CriticalFluxandOperatingConditions 295
7.3.7 AdditionalFoulingMechanisms 296
7.4 OrganicFouling 299
7.4.1 IntroductionandDefinitionofOrganicFouling 299
7.4.2 CommonOrganicFoulants 299
7.4.3 AdsorptionofOrganicMatter 301
x Contents
7.4.4 GelLayerFormation 304
7.4.5 CakeFormation 304
7.4.6 PoreBlocking/Plugging 305
7.4.7 ImpactofSolute–SoluteInteractionsandSalts 306
7.4.8 ImpactofFoulingonRetention 308
7.5 Scaling 309
7.5.1 IntroductionandDefinitionofScaling 309
7.5.2 SolubilityandSupersaturationofSalts 312
7.5.3 CommonScalants 314
7.5.4 CharacterizationofScales 317
7.5.5 MechanismsofScaleFormation 317
7.6 ColloidalandParticulateFouling 319
7.6.1 IntroductionandDefinitionofColloidalandParticulate
Fouling 319
7.6.2 ColloidProperties 321
7.6.3 NFMembraneProperties 322
7.6.4 ColloidTransportandDeposition 323
7.7 Biofouling 327
7.7.1 IntroductionandDefinitionofBiofouling 327
7.7.2 BiofilmFormationinNFPlants 328
7.7.3 BiofilmStructure 333
7.7.4 GrowthofMicrobesinBiofilms 333
7.7.5 SitesforBiofoulinginMembraneSystems 335
7.7.6 MeasuringMicrobialLoadinFeedwatersandDetectingBiofilmsin
MembraneSystems 336
7.7.7 BiofoulingManagementinMembraneSystems 338
7.8 FoulingPreventionandCleaning 339
7.8.1 PretreatmentasFoulingPrevention 339
7.8.2 MembraneModificationforFoulingPrevention 339
7.8.3 CleaningMethods 341
7.8.4 DeterminationofCleaningEffectiveness 346
7.8.5 ExamplesofCleaningApplicationsandCleaningProcess
Protocols 351
7.8.6 RegenerationofCleaningSolutions 353
7.9 Conclusions 353
Acknowledgements 353
Nomenclature 354
GreekSymbols 355
Abbreviations 355
References 357
8 PretreatmentandHybridProcesses 381
JackGilron,MarianneNyström,JukkaTanninen,andLenaKamppinen
8.1 Introduction 381
8.2 Pretreatment–AnOverview 382
8.2.1 ImportanceofPretreatmentinNF 382
8.3 Non-membranePretreatmentMethods 383
8.3.1 ControlofInorganicPrecipitation(Scaling) 383