Table Of ContentNanocarbons
This book provides a practical platform to the readers for facile preparation of various forms of car-
bon in its nano-format, investigates their structure–property relationship, and finally, realizes them
for a variety of applications taking the route of application engineering. It covers the preparation
and evaluation of nanocarbons, variety of carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, additively manu-
factured 3D carbon fibres, their properties, and various factors associated with them. A summary
and outlook of the nanocarbon field is included in the appendices.
Features:
• Presents comprehensive information on nanocarbon synthesis and properties and some
specific applications
• Covers the growth of carbon nanoparticles, nanotubes, ribbons, graphene, graphene deriv-
atives, porous/spongy phases, graphite, and 3D carbon fabrics
• Documents a large variety of characterizations and evaluations on the nature of growth
causing effect on structure properties
• Contains dedicated chapters on miniaturized, flat, and 2D devices
• Discusses a variety of applications from military to public domains, including prevalent
topics related to carbon.
This book is aimed at researchers and graduate students in materials science and materials engi-
neering, and physics.
Emerging Materials and Technologies
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Boris I. Kharissov
The Emerging Materials and Technologies series is devoted to highlighting publications centred on
emerging advanced materials and novel technologies. Attention is paid to those newly discovered
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The series takes into account that, under present strong demands for energy, material, and cost
savings, as well as heavy contamination problems and worldwide pandemic conditions, the area
of emerging materials and related scalable technologies is a highly interdisciplinary field, with the
need for researchers, professionals, and academics across the spectrum of engineering and techno-
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rials and technologies and invite conversation among the international R&D community.
4D Imaging to 4D Printing
Biomedical Applications
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Emerging Nanomaterials for Catalysis and Sensor Applications
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Carbon-Based Conductive Polymer Composites
Processing, Properties, and Applications in Flexible Strain Sensors
Dong Xiang
Emerging Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene
Edited by Bhanu Pratap Singh and Kiran M. Subhedar
Nanocarbons
Preparation, Assessments, and Applications
Ashwini P. Alegaonkar and Prashant S. Alegaonkar
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Nanocarbons
Preparation, Assessments, and Applications
Ashwini P. Alegaonkar and Prashant S. Alegaonkar
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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© 2023 Ashwini P. Alegaonkar and Prashant S. Alegaonkar
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Alegaonkar, Ashwini P., author. | Alegaonkar, Prashant S., author.
Title: Nanocarbons : preparation, assessments, and applications / Ashwini
P. Alegaonkar, Prashant S. Alegaonkar.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, [2023] |
Series: Emerging materials and technologies | Includes bibliographical
references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2022039572 (print) | LCCN 2022039573 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032329000 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032329017 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003317258 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Carbon. | Carbon nanofibers. | Carbon nanotubes.
Classification: LCC TA455.C3 A44 2023 (print) | LCC TA455.C3 (ebook) |
DDC 620.1/93–dc23/eng/20221110
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022039572
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022039573
ISBN: 9781032329000 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781032329017 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003317258 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003317258
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Dedicated
to
Prof. V. N. Bhoraskar
and
Prof. (Mrs.) S. V. Bhoraskar
Contents
About the Authors ............................................................................................................................xv
Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................................xix
Abbreviations and Symbols Used ...................................................................................................xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction and Survey ...............................................................................................1
1.1 Status of Carbon ................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Incredible Nanocarbons .......................................................................1
1.1.1.1 Dimensionality Effect: Buckminsterfullerenes
to Nanotubes .........................................................................1
1.1.1.2 2D Graphene and Beyond .....................................................2
1.1.2 Special Properties of Nanocarbons: A Brief Overview .......................3
1.1.2.1 Electrical Conductivity .........................................................4
1.1.2.2 Optical Activity ....................................................................4
1.1.2.3 Mechanical Strength .............................................................5
1.1.2.4 Chemical Reactivity .............................................................5
1.1.2.5 Functionalization ..................................................................6
1.1.2.6 Doping, Decoration, and Ad-Atom .......................................6
1.2 Scope of Nanocarbons .......................................................................................7
References ....................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 Preparation and Evaluation of Nanocarbons ..............................................................11
2.1 0D Carbon Systems: Carbon Nanoparticles (CNP)/Nano-spheres (CNS) ......11
2.1.1 Templated Growth Using DC-PECVD ..............................................11
2.1.1.1 Template Preparation ..........................................................11
2.1.1.2 Separation of the Over-Layer MWCNTs from the
Porous Templates ................................................................11
2.1.1.3 Morphological Studies on the Porous Subsurface
Region and CNPs ................................................................12
2.1.2 Sublimation Synthesis ........................................................................14
2.1.2.1 Single-Step Preparation of CNS .........................................15
2.1.2.2 Analysis of CNS .................................................................16
2.1.3 Carbon Black Composite ....................................................................18
2.2 Carbon Nanotubes: 1D Format of Carbon ......................................................19
2.2.1 DC-PECVD Synthesis........................................................................19
2.2.1.1 Role of Barrier/Buffer Layer: Catalytic CVD ....................20
2.2.1.2 Deposition of Multiple Barrier Layers ................................21
2.2.2 Thermal CVD Growth .......................................................................22
2.2.2.1 D-SIMS Analysis ................................................................22
2.2.3 Super-Growth of CNTs ......................................................................23
2.2.3.1 Rapid Thermal CVD ..........................................................24
2.2.3.2 Templated CVD ..................................................................26
2.2.3.3 CNT Patterning ..................................................................26
2.2.3.4 Selective Deposition ...........................................................28
vii
viii Contents
2.3 2D Graphene ....................................................................................................30
2.3.1 Expanded Graphite .............................................................................31
2.3.2 Disordered Graphene Like Nano-Carbons (GNCs) ...........................31
2.3.3 Graphene Nano-Ribbon .....................................................................33
2.3.4 Reduced Graphene Oxide (rGO) ........................................................36
2.3.5 CVD Graphene ...................................................................................36
2.4 Foundry-Processed 3D Graphite: Variable Density Effect .............................37
2.5 4D Orthogonal Carbon Fabric .........................................................................39
References ..................................................................................................................41
Chapter 3 Hydrodynamics and Shock Absorption Properties of Nanocarbons .........................45
3.1 Explosion: Background ....................................................................................45
3.1.1 Origin: The Introduction ....................................................................45
3.1.2 Occurrence: An Acoustic-Mechanical Analogue ..............................45
3.1.3 Shock Characteristics .........................................................................47
3.2 Laboratory Synthesis: The Survey ..................................................................48
3.2.1 Blast Mitigation Studies .....................................................................48
3.2.2 Blast-Mitigating Materials and Shield ...............................................48
3.3 Experimental Simulation of Blast: The Instrumentation ................................49
3.3.1 Contact Explosion ..............................................................................49
3.3.2 Standoff Explosion Technique ...........................................................50
3.3.3 Shock Wave Tube ...............................................................................50
3.3.4 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (sHPB) ................................................51
3.4 GNF for Shock-Absorbing Applications .........................................................51
3.4.1 Dynamic Deformation at Nanoscale Level: Methodology .................52
3.4.1.1 Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (sHPB): HSR
Measurement Details ..........................................................52
3.4.1.2 Hydrodynamic Parameters: The Lagrange−Rankine−
Hugoniot Approach .............................................................54
3.4.1.3 Fractography Analysis: Electron Microscopy Imaging ......57
3.4.2 Raman Spectroscopy: Statistical Model ............................................60
3.4.2.1 Shock Wave−GNF Interactions: Slip Mechanism and
Peierls–Nabarro Stresses ....................................................65
3.5 Surface Interactions of Transonic Shock Wave with GLNR ...........................68
3.5.1 Mechanical Behaviour........................................................................68
3.5.1.1 Fractographic Analysis .......................................................69
3.5.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy ..........................................................69
3.5.1.3 Signal Processing Studies: Pressure Impulse
Interaction with GLNR .......................................................72
3.6 Hydrodynamics Response of Nanocarbons: CNS vs GNF .............................74
3.6.1 Stress (σ)–Strain (ε) Behaviour ..........................................................74
3.6.1.1 Equation of State.................................................................75
3.6.1.2 Hydrodynamic State Variables: The Interplay ...................75
3.6.1.3 Shock Contour: Realistic vs Theoretical ............................76
3.6.2 Shock Imprinting ................................................................................77
3.7 Blast Mitigation Parameters for PNCs ............................................................78
3.7.1 Constitutive Analysis ..........................................................................79
3.7.1.1 Shock Hugoniot: P–V, U –U , and P–U Variations ..........79
S P S
3.7.1.2 Shock and Particle Velocity Considerations .......................81
Contents ix
3.7.1.3 Loading–Unloading Characteristics ...................................81
3.7.1.4 Electron and Force Microscopy Studies .............................83
3.7.2 Strain–Impulse Investigations: Shear, Compression,
and Hardening ....................................................................................85
3.7.3 Shock Anatomy ..................................................................................86
References ..................................................................................................................87
Chapter 4 Microwave Scattering and Radar Absorption Coating Properties of Nanocarbons ....91
4.1 Radar Know-Hows: The Background .............................................................91
4.1.1 Detection and Range Finding: The Communication Bands ..............91
4.1.2 S-Parameter Measurements: Vector Network Analysis .....................93
4.1.3 Sample Preparation for S-Parameter and Reflection Loss
Studies: Coaxial and Slab-Shaped Specimen ....................................95
4.1.3.1 Coaxial Measurements .......................................................95
4.1.3.2 Dallenbach Scattering: Reflection/Return
Loss Measurements ............................................................96
4.2 Microwave Scattering Mechanism: The Maxwellian Formulation .................97
4.2.1 Maxwell’s Formulation: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients ....97
4.2.2 Microwave Interactions with Material: Losses, Absorption
Factors, and Conditions ......................................................................98
4.2.2.1 Losses .................................................................................98
4.2.2.2 Factors Affecting Microwave Absorption ..........................99
4.2.2.3 Conditions for Absorption ................................................100
4.2.3 S-Parameters by Transmission Line Approach:
Nicolson–Ross Algorithm ................................................................101
4.2.4 Coating Characteristics: The Survey ................................................102
4.3 Shielding Performance of Materials Architected ..........................................102
4.3.1 Microwave Absorption Properties of Ni-Zn Ferrite
Nanoparticle Nanocomposites ..........................................................103
4.3.1.1 Morphological Properties .................................................103
4.3.1.2 Microwave Characteristics ...............................................103
4.3.2 Impressive Transmission Mode EMI Shield Parameters
of GNC/PU Nanocomposites for Short-Range Tracking
Countermeasures ..............................................................................104
4.3.2.1 Vibration Spectroscopic Analysis: FTIR and
Raman Spectroscopy ........................................................105
4.3.2.2 DC Conductivity ...............................................................106
4.3.2.3 Analysis of Scattering Parameters: Real and
Imaginary Permittivity .....................................................107
4.3.2.4 Efficient Microwave Absorbing Properties ......................108
4.3.3 Ferrite/Nanocarbon Composites ......................................................109
4.3.3.1 γ- and Ni-Zn Ferrite Thermoplastic Polyurethane ............109
4.3.3.2 Stealth Properties of MWCNTs/Ferrite/PU Composites ...109
4.4 Graphene and Graphene Derivatives for Shielding .......................................111
4.4.1 Performance of Multicomponent rGOSFPVDF Composite ............111
4.4.1.1 Preparation of Coating Material .......................................111
4.4.1.2 Morphological and Chemical Studies ..............................112
4.4.1.3 Shielding Character ..........................................................112
4.4.1.4 Heterostructure of SrAlFeO /rGO/PVDF Composites .....113
4 8 19
