Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters

274 Pages·2002·9.79 MB·English

by  Judy Kleindinst

Front cover photographs:
Middle: Noctiluca bloom, Hai Ha Wan, Hong Kong. Photo by K. D. Wilson
Bottom: Fish kill following a high biomass Ceratium furca and Prorocentrum micans
bloom leading to oxygen depletion, South Africa. Photo by G. Pitcher.
Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal
Blooms in Coastal Waters
Donald M. Anderson
Biology Department
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole MA 02543
Per Andersen
Bio/consult as
8230 Åbyhøj Denmark
V. Monica Bricelj
Institute of Marine Biosciences
National Research Council of Canada
Halifax NS Canada B3H 3Z1
John J. Cullen
Department of Oceanography
Dalhousie University
Halifax NS Canada B3H 4J1
J. E. Jack Rensel
Rensel Associates Aquatic Science Consultants
Arlington WA 98223
This report to be cited as:
Anderson, D.M., P. Andersen, V.M. Bricelj, J.J. Cullen, and J.E. Rensel. 2001. Monitoring and
Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters, APEC #201-MR-01.1, Asia Pacific
Economic Program, Singapore, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Technical Series No.
59, Paris.
The designations employed and the presentations of the material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariats of UNESCO and IOC concerning the
legal status of any country or territory, or its authorities, or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers of
any country or territory.
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 2
1 INTRODUCTION 21
1.1 HAB Impacts 21
2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF HAB MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 25
2.1 General issues 25
2.2 Basic elements 25
3 MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT METHODS 29
3.1 Methods of Toxin Analysis 29
3.1.1 General Considerations 29
3.1.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxins 31
3.1.2.1 Emerging technologies. 35
3.1.3 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) Toxin 37
3.1.4 Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) Toxins 39
3.1.5 Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) Toxins 41
3.1.6 Other algal toxins 41
3.1.7 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) Toxins 42
3.1.8 Toxin in Finfish and Consumption by Humans 45
3.2 Action or Regulatory Limits for Toxins and Cells 47
3.2.1 Shellfish 47
3.2.2 Finfish 52
3.3 Phytoplankton Cell Detection 54
3.3.1 Sampling of planktonic algae 54
3.3.2 Sampling of benthic microalgae 55
3.3.3 Fixation/preservation of algal samples 55
3.3.4 Labeling and storage 56
3.3.5 Volunteer plankton monitoring programs 56
3.3.6 New Cell Detection Methods 57
3.3.6.1 Antibodies 57
3.3.6.2 Nucelotide probes 58
3.3.6.3 Lectins 60
3.3.6.4 Application of molecular probes to natural populations 60
3.3.6.5 Use of molecular probes in new areas 61
3.3.7 Fish Indicators 62
3.4 Early Warning, Detection and Prediction of Blooms 63
3.4.1 Observing algal distributions in relation to environmental variability 64
3.4.1.1 Secchi disk 64
3.4.1.2 Chlorophyll a 65
3.4.1.3 Fluorescence of chlorophyll in vivo 65
3.4.1.4 Spectral fluorescence excitation and emission in situ 66
3.4.1.5 Spectral attenuation and absorption 67
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 3
3.4.1.6 Ocean color 70
3.4.1.7 Flow cytometry 71
3.4.2 Characterizing Environmental Variability Relevant to Algal Blooms 72
3.4.2.1 Profiling systems 72
3.4.2.2 Underway sampling on ferries 73
3.4.2.3 Bio-optical moorings 74
3.4.2.4 Moored profiler 77
3.4.3 SEAWATCH™ system 77
3.4.3.1 Estimated costs and requirements for support 78
3.4.3.2 Monitoring algal blooms with SEAWATCHTM 78
3.4.3.3 Forecasting algal blooms with SEAWATCHTM 79
3.4.3.4 A general assessment of SEAWATCH for monitoring and predicting algal blooms
79
3.4.4 Observations from Aircraft 80
3.4.4.1 Visual detection of blooms 80
3.4.4.2 Quantitative observations of ocean color from aircraft 80
3.4.4.3 Imaging spectroradiometer 82
3.4.4.4 Satellite remote sensing 83
3.4.4.5 Remote sensing and forecasts of bloom dynamics 83
3.4.4.6 Remote sensing and research on algal blooms 83
3.4.5 Modeling 84
4 HAB MONITORING PROGRAMS 86
4.1 Fish Mariculture Monitoring 86
4.1.1 Norway 86
4.1.2 Pacific Northwest (North America) 91
4.1.2.1 Background and causative species 91
4.1.2.2 Chaetoceros subgroup Phaeoceros 93
4.1.2.3 Heterosigma akashiwo 94
4.1.2.4 Ceratium fusus 96
4.1.2.5 British Columbia (Canada) 97
4.1.2.6 Washington State (US) 98
4.1.3 Japan 99
4.3.5.1 Background and Causative Species 99
4.1.4 Chile 102
4.1.4.1 Background and causative species 102
4.1.4.2 Heterosigma akashiwo 102
4.1.4.3 Chilean fish farms and phytoplankton monitoring 104
4.2 Ciguatera 104
4.3 Shellfish Monitoring 105
4.3.1 United States 105
4.3.1.1 Atlantic US: State of Maine 105
4.3.1.2 Pacific US 113
4.3.2 Canada 118
4.3.3 Galicia, NW Spain 126
4.3.4 Denmark 132
4.3.5 New Zealand 137
4.3.6 France 149
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 4
4.3.7 Control of Imported and Exported Seafood Products 152
4.3.7.1 US: the NSSP/ISSC program 153
4.3.7.2 Canadian import program 155
4.3.7.3 The European Economic Community (EEC) 155
4.4 Monitoring for Pfiesteria-like Organisms 156
4.5 HAB Impacts on Beaches and Recreational Waters 157
4.5.1 Recreational use of beaches/coastal waters 157
4.5.2 Species toxic to humans through inhalation of sea spray, etc. 158
4.5.3 Species toxic to humans through dermal contact 159
4.5.4 Species toxic to animals (including humans) through oral intake while swimming
160
4.5.5 Non-toxic phytoplankton 160
4.5.6 Mitigation/precautionary measures 160
4.6 HAB Impacts on Ecosystems 162
4.7 Monitoring Program Costs 163
5 ADMINISTRATION OF MONITORING PROGRAMS 167
5.1 National/regional HAB Monitoring Programs 167
5.2 Public Education and Communication 168
6 MITIGATION AND CONTROL 174
6.1 Impact Prevention 174
6.1.1 Monitoring Programs 174
6.1.2 Nutrient Reductions 175
6.1.3 Ballast Water Introductions 177
6.1.4 Species Introductions via Mariculture Operations 178
6.1.5 Prediction 178
6.1.5.1 Models 178
6.1.5.2 Remote sensing 178
6.2 Bloom Control 179
6.2.1 Chemical Control 179
6.2.2 Flocculants (clays and long-chain polymers) 182
6.2.3 Physical Control 186
6.2.3.1 Skimming of Surface Water 186
6.2.3.2 Ultrasonic destruction of HAB cells 186
6.2.4 Biological Control 186
6.2.4.1 Grazing by zooplankton and suspension-feeding benthos. 186
6.2.4.2 Viruses 187
6.2.4.3 Parasites 188
6.2.4.4 Bacteria 189
6.2.4.5 Other algae 189
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 5
6.3 The Arguments Against Controlling HABs 190
6.4 In Situ Bloom Mitigation Methods for Fish Mariculture 191
6.4.1 Aeration 191
6.4.2 Oxygenation 198
6.4.3 Airlift Pumping 199
6.4.4 Moving Pens from Blooms 200
6.4.5 Perimeter Skirts 201
6.4.6 Ozone 203
6.4.7 Site Selection 204
6.4.8 Alternative Fish Culture Systems 205
6.4.9 Filter Systems 208
6.4.10 Dietary or Chemical Treatments 209
6.4.11 Miscellaneous Mitigation Practices 209
6.4.12 Survey of Mitigation Used Worldwide 210
6.5 Impact Prevention, Mitigation and Control Strategies – Shellfish 211
6.5.1 Species Selection 212
6.5.2 Detoxification 212
6.5.3 Tissue-Compartmentalization of Toxins (product selection) 217
6.5.4 Vertical Placement in the Water Column 217
6.5.5 Processing of Seafood 218
6.5.6 Detoxification by chemical agents 220
6.5.7 Biological control 220
6.6 Ciguatera Therapy 221
7 CONCLUSIONS 223
7.1 General Monitoring Issues 223
7.2 Finfish Mariculture and Monitoring 224
7.3 Finfish Mariculture: Mitigation of Fish Kills 225
7.4 Fish Mortality and Toxic Blooms 226
7.5 Effects of Harmful Algae on Shellfish 226
7.6 Biotoxins 227
7.7 Early Warning and Prediction 229
7.8 Control and Mitigation of Algal Blooms 231
8 REFERENCES 236
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 6
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1. Generalized pathways of human intoxication with molluscan shellfish toxins via filter-
feeding bivalves and carnivorous and scavenging gastropods. 24
FIGURE 2.1. Theoretical monitoring network for HABs. 26
FIGURE 3.1. Records of water transparency (i.e., Secchi depth, 5-year running mean) and the reported
frequency of blooms in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan, before and after the imposition of pollution controls in
1973. 65
FIGURE 3.2. Estimates of chlorophyll concentration based on measurements obtained with moored
spectral absorption meters in the southeast Bering Sea, 1993. 68
FIGURE 3.3. Detection of a dinoflagellate bloom with a radiometer buoy measuring ocean color, Aug. 18,
1993, during patchy discoloration of surface waters by high concentrations of the non-toxic dinoflagellate
Gonyaulax digitale. 70
FIGURE 3.4. Measurements of spectral diffuse attenuation coefficients [K (l), m-1] in coastal waters off
d
Oregon (US). 71
FIGURE 3.5. Diffuse attenuation coefficient at 490 nm (K (490); m-1) in the upper 6 m, summer to fall
d
1997, Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada measured with a Tethered Attenuation Coefficient Chain Sensor.
76
FIGURE 3.6. The different origins of light received by a remote sensor pointed to the ocean surface. 81
FIGURE 4.1. Sources of information in the Norwegian HAB monitoring program. 87
FIGURE 4.2. Scenario showing how information about HAB situations is collected, evaluated and
communicated to fish farmers and insurance companies in Norway. 90
FIGURE 4.3. Information collection and distribution system for red tide/HAB information in the Seto
Inland Sea, Japan. 101
FIGURE 4.4. Information exchange and red HAB investigations in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. 101
FIGURE 4.5. Sources of shellfish for routine biotoxin monitoring. 106
FIGURE 4.6. Structure and responsibilities for the shellfish biotoxin monitoring program in the State of
Maine (ME), Atlantic US. 108
FIGURE 4.7. Distribution of primary sampling stations for shellfish biotoxin monitoring within 18 coastal
regions in Maine, Atlantic, US. 110
FIGURE 4.8. Action plan for the shellfish monitoring program in the State of Maine, Atlantic, US. 112
FIGURE 4.9. Regions on the Atlantic coast of Canada in which PSP, ASP and DSP toxins have been
identified in molluscan shellfish. 119
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 7
FIGURE 4.10. Temporal changes in the phytoplankton and shellfish toxin monitoring programs in the
Maritimes, Atlantic Canada (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and eastern Nova Scotia), 1987/88-
1997. 124
FIGURE 4.11. Predictive relationships established from HAB monitoring data from the Gulf of St.
Lawrence region, Quebec, Canada (1986 to 1994). 127
FIGURE 4.12. Location of sampling sites in Galicia, Spain. 130
FIGURE 4.13. Action plan for the biotoxin monitoring program in Galicia, NW Spain. 131
FIGURE 4.14. Areas of the Danish coastal waters and fjords where monitoring of harmful algae and algal
toxins in mussels is conducted. 133
FIGURE 4.15. Flow of communication through the Danish monitoring program for toxic algae and algal
toxins in mussels. 137
FIGURE 4.16. Map showing the many different toxic or potentially harmful phytoplankton species in
New Zealand waters. 139
FIGURE 4.17. Network used for shellfish poisoning monitoring in French coastal waters. 150
FIGURE 4.18. Location of IFREMER laboratories and REPHY sampling stations. 152
FIGURE 4.19. Cost of the harmful algae monitoring program in Galicia, NW Spain within the context of
overall environmental quality monitoring. 165
FIGURE 5.1. Worldwide status of HAB monitoring programs in 1966. 167
FIGURE 5.2. Organization of red tide/HAB monitoring in the Philippines. 169
FIGURE 5.3. A Danish brochure presenting information on the risk of collecting and eating shellfish in
relation to algal toxins. 171
FIGURE 5.4. Danish information material for the public about the risk of swimming during algal
blooms/red tides. 172
FIGURE 5.5. Philippine poster informing the public about safe handling of seafood, and which seafoods
are safe to eat during a red tide. 173
FIGURE 6.1. Electrical powered regenerative blower (left) and diffused airstone (right). 193
FIGURE 6.2. Typical pond application of a propeller-driven, electrically powered air aspiration system.
194
FIGURE 6.3. Underwater view of a propeller-driven, electrically powered air aspiration system, showing
the hollow tube and prop wash from the propeller. 194
FIGURE 6.4. Schematic diagram of a venturi nozzle system using pumped seawater from any source and
a rigid airline to allow suction of air. 195
Monitoring and Management Strategies forHarmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters 8