MODESTY, PRIVACY, AND SEXUAL MISCONDUCT OF PASSENGERS AND SAILORS ABOARD ...

17 Pages·2007·0.12 MB·English

AL-QANTARA (AQ)
XXVII 1, enero-junio de 2006
pp. 137-153
ISSN 0211-3589
WOMEN AT SEA: MODESTY, PRIVACY, AND SEXUAL
MISCONDUCT OF PASSENGERS AND SAILORS
ABOARD ISLAMIC SHIPS
HASSAN S. KHALILIEH
UniversityofHaifa
ThearticledealswiththeattitudeofIslamic Esteartículotratadelaactituddelaleyislá-
lawtowardsthecarriageofwomenbywater mica acerca del transporte marítimo de las
andhowMuslimjudicialauthoritiesviewed mujeres y de cómo las autoridades jurídicas
theirpresenceonships.Itdiscussesthecon- musulmanas consideraban su presencia en
ditionsunderwhichwomenwerecarried,ac- los barcos. Discute las condiciones bajo las
commodatedandtreated,inadditiontotheir cualeslasmujereseranacomodadasytrata-
personalandsocialbehaviorinships.Toap- dasenlosbarcosasícomoelcomportamien-
plyIslamicreligiousethicsandnavigational topersonalysocialqueseesperabadeellas.
regulationsduringmaritimejourneys,jurists Con el fin de aplicar la ética islámica y las
instructed owners of ships, crews, and pas- normas marítimas, los juristas informaban
sengers how to act in the event of immoral alosarmadores,tripulacionesypasajerosde
behavior on the part of both or either party. cómo actuar en el caso de comportamiento
Women could protect themselves against inmoralporalgunaovariasdelaspartes.El
temptation and sexual harassment by dress- trabajo se centra en el Mediterráneo Islámi-
ingmodestly,behavingproperly,andtravel- co, pero trata brevemente el castigo de la
ingwithma(cid:6)rams.Eventhoughthisworkfo- conducta social ofensiva en la Malasia islá-
cuses on the Islamic Mediterranean, the mica del siglo XIII. Por último, considera
article briefly describes the punishment of también la posición legal islámica sobre el
sexualmisconductasestablishedinthethir- transporte de musulmanes en barcos cristia-
teenthcenturyC.E.inIslamicMalay.Lastly, nos.
it touches the Islamic legal position on the
transportation of Muslims aboard Christian
ships.
Palabras clave: Ley islámica; Mujeres; Re-
Keywords: Islamic Law; Women; Naviga- gulacionesnáuticas;Viajesmarítimos;Moral
tionalregulations;Maritimejourney;Sexual sexual
misconduct
Women constituted an inseparable part of Islamic society during
the classical era. They played an integral role in the domestic econ-
omy as in the shipping business and overseas trade. The scant docu-
mentary evidence we derive from the Cairo Geniza records reveals
that a few women associated with governmental circles even owned
commercial vessels: the trading vessels of al-Sayyida, the aunt of
Z(cid:3)r(cid:3)dgovernorsofIfr(cid:10)qiyaal-Mu‘izzIbnB(cid:3)dis(406-454/1016-1062),
138 HASSANS.KHALILIEH
sailed between Tunisian, Sicilian, and Egyptian seaports.1 On Mus-
lim women involved in overseas trade we learn from a twelfth
century maritime loan contract. An Italian moneylender named Ser
GuglielmomadeashorttermmaritimeloantoSicilianMuslimentre-
preneurs —a woman called Ghaf(cid:7)a and her brother ‘Abd All(cid:3)h— on
condition that they repay it at a fixed interest rate on the date speci-
fied, or bear all financial consequences.2 The recent discovery of
such historical evidence clearly confirms that Islamic law permitted
womentoplayapartintheday-to-dayeconomiclifeofthesocietyso
long as the religious principles and social norms were observed.
Troublesandmisfortunesincludingsheerwant,religiousmotives,
the pursuit of learning and the need to make a living all provided
incentives for travel around the Mediterranean. These motivated
womenaswelltotravel,despitetherisksofwatertransport.Anelev-
enth century Geniza letter describes how a vessel bound for Alexan-
dria was wrecked off Salqa(cid:5)a/Saly(cid:3)(cid:5)a, in the Catania province of
Sicily,andtwentysouls,womenandmen,perished.Thewriter’sem-
phasis on the women who died in this shipwreck indicates that
women in those days traveled less than men.3 This letter does not,
however, portray how women behaved and were treated onboard this
particular ship. The conditions under which women were accommo-
dated and treated remain vague, as does their personal and social be-
havior on river and seagoing vessels. An attempt will therefore be
madethroughoutthefollowingdiscussiontoshedlightontheattitude
1 Ben-Sasson,M.,TheJewsofSicily825-1068:DocumentsandSources,Jerusalem,
Ben-ZviInstitute,1991,(inHebrew),276,277,Bodl.MSHeb.c28,f.61v.,ll.7,22,23;
370-371, Bodl. MS Heb. c 3, f. 13, ll. 39-40; Gil, M., In the Kingdom of Ishmael, Tel
Aviv,1997,(inHebrew),vol.II,600,TS12.325,l.18;vol.III,155-157,TS12.339r.ll.
4,19v.,l.2;vol.III,311,BMOr5544,f.6,l.5;vol.III,836,Bodl.MSHeb.d66,f.81,
l.8;vol.III,919,920,Bodl.MSHeb.c28,f.61v.,ll.7,22;vol.III,940,Bodl.MSHeb.a
3,f.13,ll.39-40;vol.IV,435,INAD55,f.14v.,l.2;vol.IV,632,TS12.28,l.10;‘Ao-
deh,(cid:13).,“TypesofVesselsandtheirOwnershipasSeenintheCairoGenizaDocuments,”
in Mas’at Moshe: Studies in Jewish and Islamic Culture Presented to Moshe Gil, E.
Fleischeretal.(eds.),Jerusalem,1998,(inHebrew),291.OntheinvolvementofRoman
womeninwatertransportandshipowning,consultScott,S.P.,TheCivilLaw,Cincinna-
ti,1932,vol.IV,202,DigestXIV,1,1,16.
2 Cusa, S., I Diplomi greci ed arabi di Sicilia, Palerme, 1868-1882, I, 502-504;
Bresc, H., “Le marchand, le marché et le palais dans la Sicile des Xe-XIIe siècles,” in
Mercatiemercantinell’altomedioevo:l’areaeuroasiaticael’areamediterranea,Spole-
to,1993,307-308.
3 Goitein, S. D., A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab
WorldasPortrayedintheDocumentsoftheCairoGeniza,Berkeley,1967,vol.I,322.
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WOMENATSEA:MODESTY,PRIVACY,ANDSEXUALMISCONDUCT 139
of Islamic law towards carrying women by water. It will focus on
views of Muslim jurists and mu(cid:6)tasibs (market superintendents) on
the presence and transportation of female travelers in ships. How did
Muslim judicial authorities instruct the owners of ships, crews, and
passengers as regards immoral behavior on the part of both or either
party?Howcouldwomenprotectthemselvesagainsttemptationsand
sexual harassments? Where punishments were meted out, on land or
aboard ship? And what was the captain’s jurisdiction?
Modesty
Guidelines for appropriate behavior generally follow the concept
of avoiding potential temptation. Much advice was based on the
premise that physical attraction was an important precursor to rela-
tionships leading to a desire for physical intimacy; the emphasis here
on minimizing factors that promoted physical attraction. To ensure
wholesome relationships between the sexes, passengers and crews
had to observe four basic principles: (a) respectful behavior that
wouldenableMuslimstointeractinaproductiveandblamelessman-
ner; (b) maintain purity in a social context (avoiding provocative be-
havior such as flirtation, unnecessary physical contact, ogling or ha-
rassment);4 (c) avoid situations of seclusion (khalwa);5 and (d) dress
4 M(cid:3)ward(cid:10),‘Al(cid:10)IbnMu(cid:14)ammadIbn(cid:11)ab(cid:10)b,al-Rutbaf(cid:3)(cid:20)alabal-(cid:15)isba,Cairo,2002,
356;Ibn‘Abd(cid:4)n,Mu(cid:14)ammadIbnA(cid:14)madal-Tuj(cid:10)b(cid:10),SevilleMusulmaneaudebutduXIIe
Siècle,LeTraitéd’Ibn‘Abd(cid:10)n,traduitparE.Lévi-Provençal,Paris,1947,64,thistreati-
sewasprimarilypublishedbyLévi-Provençal,E.,“Undocumentsurlavieurbaineetles
corpsdemétiersàSévilleaudébutduXIIesiécle:Letraitéd’Ibn‘Abd(cid:4)n,”JournalAsia-
tique (1934), especially p. 247; idem, Trois traités hispaniques de (cid:15)isba, Caire, 1955,
56-57; Ibn M(cid:3)jid, Shih(cid:3)b al-D(cid:10)n A(cid:14)mad, Kit(cid:1)b al-Faw(cid:1)’id f(cid:3) U(cid:7)(cid:10)l ‘Ilm al-Ba(cid:6)r
wal-Qaw(cid:1)‘id,Damascus,1971,245.
5 Nawaw(cid:10),Mu(cid:14)y(cid:10)l-D(cid:10)n,Nuzhatal-Muttaq(cid:3),Beirut,1996,vol.II,338-340;Nas(cid:3)’(cid:10),
A(cid:14)madIbnShu‘ayb,Kit(cid:1)bal-Sunanal-Kubr(cid:1),Beirut,2001,vol.VIII,282-287,(cid:15)ad(cid:3)ths
nos.9171-9182.One(cid:15)ad(cid:3)thstates:«noperson(man)shouldbealonewithawomanbe-
causeSatan(Devil)willbethethirdparty»;anothersays:«wheneveramanandawoman
cometogether,thenSatanistheirthirdone[l(cid:1)yakhluwannarajulunbi-imra’a,fa-inna
al-Shay(cid:4)(cid:1)nath(cid:1)lithuhum(cid:1)].»SeealsoIbnAnas,M(cid:3)lik,Al-Muwa(cid:4)(cid:4)a’ofIm(cid:1)mM(cid:1)likIbn
Anas, trans. by A. Bewley, London, 1989, 411-412: «Shay(cid:4)(cid:1)n (Devil/Satan) concerns
himselfwithoneandtwo.Whentherearethree,hedoesnotconcernhimselfwiththem.»
Anothertraditionsays:«OneriderisaShay(cid:4)(cid:1)n.TworidersaretwoShay(cid:4)(cid:1)ns,andthree
are a riding-party.» This series of Prophetic traditions is compatible with the Holy
Qur’(cid:1)n(IV,83)andaimsatavoidingseclusionofunmarriedcouples.Theywereadmo-
Al-Qan(cid:4)ara (AQ) XXVII 1, enero-junio 2006, pp. 137-153 ISSN 0211-3589
140 HASSANS.KHALILIEH
modestly in order to be recognized as a decent person, and to avoid
harassment.6
Modest dress and behavior that exhibited self-control and dignity
was of utmost importance when interacting with the same and oppo-
site sex, as a means of protecting women from unwanted advances
andharassment.Appropriateclothingconsistedofanundergarment,a
bodyshirt,alongdress,gown,ortunic,andanoutergarmentsuchas
a mantle, coat, or wrap, shoes or sandals, and a head covering.7 As
for the crews, tenth century literary evidence from Egypt shows that
Islamic maritime customs seem to have required shipowners to outfit
their crew and staff with uniforms called jib(cid:1)b (sing. jubba, a long
outergarment,openinfront,withwidesleeves),8ortubb(cid:1)n(drawers
or briefs),9 to distinguish them from shippers and passengers.
Muslim doctors of law viewed transporting women on rivers and
by sea negatively because it necessitated some degree of interaction,
and their concern over propriety (‘awra)10 made them unwilling to
permit women to sail. As a result, the Shar(cid:3)‘a forbade carrying
nished against spending time in seclusion, where they would be likely to act on their
feelings.
6 The Meaning of the Holy Qur’(cid:1)n, translated by ‘A. Y. ‘Al(cid:10), Brentwood, 1991,
XXIV,30-31:«Tellthebelievingmentolowertheirgazeandbemindfuloftheirchas-
tity:thiswillbemostconducivetotheirpurity,verily,Godisawareofallthattheydo.
And tell the believing women to lower their gaze and to be mindful of their charms
(z(cid:1)na)(inpublic)beyondwhatmay(decently)beapparentthereof;hence,letthemdraw
theirhead-coverings(khim(cid:1)r)overtheirbosoms.Andletthemnotdisplaymoreoftheir
charms (z(cid:1)na) to any but their husbands, or their fathers, or their husbands’ fathers, or
theirsons,ortheirhusband’ssons,ortheirbrothers,ortheirbrothers’sons,ortheirsis-
ters’sons,ortheirwomenfolk,orthosewhomtheyrightfullypossess,orsuchmaleatten-
dantsasarebeyondallsexualdesire,orchildrenthatareasyetunawareofwomen’sna-
kedness(‘awra);andletthemnotswingtheirlegs(inwalking)soastodrawattentionto
theirhiddencharms.»Mostjuristsagreethatclothesthatdonotaccentuateawoman’sfi-
gureorrevealtheskinaremostappropriate.ManyMuslimshaveadoptedamannerof
dress,whichincludesahead-covering.
7 Stillman, Y. K., Arab Dress from the Dawn of Islam to Modern Times: A Short
History,Leiden,2000,9-28.
8 Tan(cid:4)kh(cid:10), Ab(cid:4) ‘Al(cid:10) Mu(cid:14)assin Ibn Ab(cid:10) l-Q(cid:3)sim, al-Faraj ba‘d al-Shidda, Cairo,
1955,vol.I,388.
9 Stillman,ArabDress,50.
10 ‘Awra:lit.modestyzone.Itmustbecoveredbeforeeverybodybutaspouse;for
menthisisfromnaveltoknee,forwomenthe‘awraextendsfromherwriststoherneck
toherankles.Itmayalsobeusedtorefertowhatwomenmustconcealbeforenon-rela-
ted men. See Ibn Rushd, Ab(cid:4) al-Wal(cid:10)d Mu(cid:14)ammad Ibn A(cid:14)mad, al-Bay(cid:1)n wal-Ta(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:3)l
wal-Shar(cid:6) wal-Tawj(cid:3)h wal-Ta‘l(cid:3)l f(cid:3) Mas(cid:1)’il al-Mustakhraja, Beirut, 1984, vol. II,
434-435.
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WOMENATSEA:MODESTY,PRIVACY,ANDSEXUALMISCONDUCT 141
women by water unless the ships contained separate sections for fe-
males, or the sexes were segregated.11 It recommended that women
sailonvesselsofseveraldecks12ontheconditionthattheirhusbands
or ma(cid:6)rams13 accompanied them, regardless of whether the female
travelers were Muslims or dhimm(cid:3)s. To ensure that travelers observe
Islamic socio-religious ethics, every one ought to have a passport
(jaw(cid:1)z),14 and additional identification documents when necessary.
An early thirteenth century Geniza letter describes how a man from
Ceuta was imprisoned in the port city of Bij(cid:3)ya (Bougie) and his
cargo confiscated merely because he could not present identification
papers for a woman accompanying him:
Furthermore,IinformyouthatIlongandyearnforyou.Ialsoinformyouthat
someone arrived here and told us that your son Niss(cid:10)m traveled from Ceuta to
Bij(cid:3)ya,wherethegovernorofthetownfoundthatawomanwasinhiscompany.
Heaskedhim:Howisthiswomanrelatedtoyou?Heanswered:Sheismywife.
However, when he was asked for the (marriage) certificate, he replied that she
hadnone.Uponthisthegovernortookallhisgoodsandputhiminprison.Not-
hingremainedinhispossession.ByGod,donottarry.15
11 M(cid:3)ward(cid:10),al-A(cid:6)k(cid:1)mal-Sul(cid:4)(cid:1)niyyawal-Wil(cid:1)y(cid:1)tal-D(cid:3)niyya,Beirut,1978,257:«If
they (shipowners) carry both men and women, a partition should be installed between
them»;IbnRushd,al-Bay(cid:1)nwal-Ta(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:3)l,vol.II,434-435:«Idislikewomensailingonthe
(cid:6)ajj(pilgrimagetoMakkah)...forfearthattheymayrevealthemselvesimproperly[‘aw-
ratihunna]»;Ibnal-Ukhuwwa,Mu(cid:14)ammadIbnMu(cid:14)ammad,Ma(cid:23)(cid:1)limal-Qurb(cid:1)f(cid:3)A(cid:6)k(cid:1)m
al-(cid:15)isba,Cairo,1976,324,writes:«Ifthey(shipowners)carrywomen,theymustseta
partition between them and the men»; Minh(cid:3)j(cid:10), Mu(cid:14)ammad Ibn A(cid:14)mad, Jaw(cid:1)hir
al-‘Uq(cid:10)dwa-Mu‘(cid:3)nal-Qu(cid:2)(cid:1)twal-Muwaqqi‘(cid:3)nwal-Shuh(cid:10)d,Cairo,1374/1955,vol.I,95.
12 Minh(cid:3)j(cid:10),Jaw(cid:1)hiral-‘Uq(cid:10)d,vol.I,95.
13 Ma(cid:6)ramliterarilymeanseverythingthatisentitledtoreverence,respect,honor,or
defense,inthecharacterandappartenancesofaperson.InIslamiclawthetermsignifies
adegreeofconsanguinityprecludingmarriage;thisincludesfather,brother,paternaland
maternaluncle,son-in-law,father-in-lawetc.Onwomentravelingwiththeirma(cid:6)rams,
see Qushayr(cid:10), Muslim Ibn (cid:11)ajj(cid:3)j, (cid:8)a(cid:6)(cid:3)(cid:6) Muslim, ed. and trans. ‘A. (cid:13)idd(cid:10)q(cid:10), Lahore,
1971-1975,vol.II,675-677;IbnAnas,al-Muwa(cid:4)(cid:4)a’ofIm(cid:1)mM(cid:1)lik,411-412:«Itisnot
(cid:6)al(cid:1)lforawomanwhobelievesinAllâhandtheLastDaytotravelthedistanceofaday
andnightwithoutamanwhoisherma(cid:6)ram.»
14 Fahmy,A.M.,MuslimNavalOrganisationintheEasternMediterraneanfromthe
SeventhtotheTenthCenturyA.D.,Cairo,1966,113-114.Itisreportedthatslaves,be
theymalesorfemale,whoaccompaniedtheirmastersandtraderscouldnotmovefrom
oneterritoryorprovincetoanotherwithoutaseparatepassportforeachone.Forinstan-
ce,duringthereignofA(cid:14)madIbn(cid:1)(cid:4)l(cid:4)n(254-270/868-884)atraderaccompaniedbyhis
slave could not pass through the customs of al-‘Ar(cid:10)sh, a coastal frontier town between
Palestine and Egypt, unless the governmental authorities there obtained an official ins-
tructionfromFus(cid:5)(cid:3)(cid:5).
15 Goitein,S.D.,LettersofMedievalJewishTraders,Princeton,1973,339.
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142 HASSANS.KHALILIEH
Identity and Character of the Crew and Passengers
Some Muslim jurists warned their fellow passengers to learn
aboutthevessel’sowner/sandcrewsaswellasaboutaccommodation
onboard. Al-Kind(cid:10) (d. 557/1162) writes: «Whoever intends to travel
on a ship must learn with certainty about the shipowner, but not from
people who are in frequent contact with him.»16 This rule, which
seemed to have been known to Mediterranean polities from ancient
times, was officially instituted in the imperial legal codices of Rome
and Byzantium,17 and remained effective in the Islamic Mediterra-
nean.18 An objective impression of the personal background of the
shipowner was to be obtained from outside sources, i.e. from people
who were not in frequent contact with him; information about the
shipowner’s reputation from his own circle was considered unreli-
able. It behooved the passenger to assess the character and skills first
oftheowner/s,andthenofthecrewsbeforetheycouldfeelassuredin
endorsing the contract of hire.19 Assurance apparently meant believ-
ing that no misbehavior on the part of the captain or crew would lead
to unpleasant consequences during the maritime voyage.
Jurists cautioned sea travelers against sailing with dishonest and
ill reputed shipowners and sailors, especially on the high seas. Un-
usualtestimonytotheirimmoralbehaviorispresentedbyal-M(cid:3)ward(cid:10)
(364-450/974-1058), who states:
Asfortheownersofseagoingvessels,theyareabsolutelydevoidofcredibi-
lity except for an insignificant number because they counterfeit (damage) the
16 Kind(cid:10),AhmadIbn‘AbdAll(cid:3)hIbnM(cid:4)s(cid:3),al-Mu(cid:7)annaf,Masqa(cid:5),1983,vol.XVIII,
53:manar(cid:1)daruk(cid:10)bal-saf(cid:3)nawa-l(cid:1)ya‘rif(cid:7)(cid:1)(cid:6)ibah(cid:1)ill(cid:1)bi-khabarmanl(cid:1)ya‘rifauhu...
17 Scott,CivilLaw,vol.IV,200,DigestXIV,1,1,urgesthosewhointendtotravel
on a ship to be reliably informed the character of the shipowner. Article III:11 of the
Rhodian Sea Law states: «When merchants are hiring ships, let them make precise in-
quiryfromtheothermerchantswhosailedbeforethembeforeputtingintheircargoes,if
the ship is completely prepared, with a strong sail-yard, sails, skins, anchors, ropes of
hempofthefirstquality,boatsinperfectorder,suitabletillers,sailorsfitfortheirwork,
goodseamen,briskandsmart,theship’ssidesstaunch.Inaword,letthemerchantsmake
inquiryintoeverythingandthenproceedtoload.»SeeAlexander,J.,AGeneralTreatise
of the Dominion of the Sea, London, 1724, 94; Ashburner, W., The Rhodian Sea Law,
Oxford, 1909, 91-92; Freshfield, E. H., A Manual of Later Roman Law: The Ecloga,
Cambridge, 1927, 197-198; Dareste, R., “La Lex Rhodia,” Revue de Philologie, 29
(1905),11.
18 Ibn‘Abd(cid:4)n,LeTraité,64;Lévi-Provençal,“Letraitéd’Ibn‘Abd(cid:10)n,”247.
19 Kind(cid:10),al-Mu(cid:7)annaf,vol.XVIII,53.
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WOMENATSEA:MODESTY,PRIVACY,ANDSEXUALMISCONDUCT 143
goods of merchants and steal their textiles. There are those who carry women
aboardtheirvesselstofornicatewiththem.Whenarrivingatsomecoastalplace
theycalluponthemen:“goashoretorepairthevessel.”Afterward,theyfloatthe
shiponthehighseawheretheyrapewomen[whohappenedtobeonboard]and
dounmentionablethings.Perhaps,theymightmakeanassignationwithawoman
whoisjealousofherhusbandorindisputewithhim.Theyarrangeforarendez-
vouswithherfromonetowntoanother.Asaresult,themarketsuperintendent
(mu(cid:6)tasib)mustcommitthembyanoathnottoconductsuchimmoralacts.God
knowsbest.20
Al-M(cid:3)ward(cid:10) calls our attention to two noteworthy elements.
Firstly, women should not be left alone with men because «Satan
couldbetheirthirdparty.»Suchseclusionmaytemptthemtofornica-
tion or other illicit acts with or without their consent.21 Then too, the
sailor’s sexual misconduct could be linked to the distance between
the destination and his homeport. Al-M(cid:3)ward(cid:10) seems to have distin-
guished between foreign and local mariners, i.e. between those who
navigate on inland waters and those who sail the high seas. Since
coastal and inland waters —rivers, lakes and harbors— were under
thefulllegaljurisdictionofthestate,thegovernmentregulatingnavi-
gation on these waters was responsible for the safety of passengers
and their property. Dishonest and unprofessional behavior by sailors
and/ortheiremployerswouldbringthemintoconflictwiththelaw.In
most cases, government authorities captured foreign and in particular
local mariners who transgressed with their passengers within the
state’s maritime jurisdiction.22 Occasionally, however, foreign mari-
ners on short stopovers in overseas ports were characterized as dis-
honest, wicked, and behaving outrageously toward their female pas-
sengers at remote destinations.23 The foreign group might escape
justiceespeciallyiftheydidnotreturntothescenesoftheirshameful
acts.
Shipowners and captains had to supervise and assess the passen-
gers’ behavior throughout the journey so as to avoid serious conse-
quences. The twelfth century Andalusian jurist Ibn ‘Abd(cid:4)n warned
20 M(cid:3)ward(cid:10),al-Rutbaf(cid:3)(cid:20)alabal-(cid:15)isba,356.
21 Seeabove,note5.
22 Khalilieh,H.,IslamicMaritimeLaw:AnIntroduction,Leiden,1998,141-148.
23 Ibn al-Muj(cid:3)wir, Jam(cid:3)l al-D(cid:10)n Y(cid:4)suf Ibn Ya‘q(cid:4)b Ibn Mu(cid:14)ammad, (cid:8)ifat Bil(cid:1)d
al-Yamanwa-Makkawa-Ba‘(cid:14)al-(cid:15)ij(cid:1)zal-Musamm(cid:1)Ta’r(cid:3)khal-Mustab(cid:7)ir,Leiden,1951,
vol.II,268,describeshowelderlyfemalepimpsoftheislandofSocotraarrangedyoung
prostitutesforpirates.
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144 HASSANS.KHALILIEH
them not to transport suspicious passengers, particularly mercenaries
of barbarian origin, black slaves and people of ill repute.24 Similar
cautions are emphasized in Arabic pilot books and navigation litera-
ture as well. The famous Arab pilot Ibn M(cid:3)jid (840-906/1436-1500)
cautioned masters and captains of commercial ships to «look thor-
oughly at all the passengers and the crew and assess them carefully,»
in order to recognize and preempt any evil in them.25
Privacy
Assigning shipboard accommodation was the prerogative of the
shipmaster or his representative. A passenger could not choose
his/her own except if the leasing terms specifically allowed it; some
leasing contracts might authorize the passenger to designate his/her
own space.26 On a small or a medium-sized ship with one deck, fe-
males had to be segregated from males; segregation between the
sexes applied to male and female slaves as well even if they were
transported on the same level of the ship. To minimize interactions
between male and female passengers, al-M(cid:3)ward(cid:10) strongly urged
mu(cid:6)tasibs to ensure that large, roomy ships have separate toilets for
women «so that they are not exposed to view when they need to use
them.»27 The desire to avoid mingling arose from fears of encourag-
ingillicitsexualconduct.Largeshipswithseveraldecksseemtohave
had special sections for women. For instance, the middle floor of the
Cocca and the Qarq(cid:10)r, two luxurious types of commercial ships, had
private cabins and lavatories, and were designed to accommodate
women, including maidservants and slaves.28 One surmises that an
upper class woman accompanied by her husband or her ma(cid:6)ram,
could hire first-class accommodation that would include a lavatory, a
24 Ibn‘Abd(cid:4)n,LeTraité,64;Lévi-Provençal,“Letraitéd’Ibn‘Abd(cid:10)n,”247.
25 IbnM(cid:3)jid,Faw(cid:1)’id,245.
26 (cid:1)a(cid:14)(cid:3)w(cid:10), A(cid:14)mad Ibn Mu(cid:14)ammad, Kit(cid:1)b al-Shur(cid:10)(cid:4) al-(cid:8)agh(cid:3)r, Baghd(cid:3)d, 1992,
vol. I, 266-267; Qar(cid:3)f(cid:10), Shih(cid:3)b al-D(cid:10)n Ab(cid:4) l-‘Abb(cid:3)s Ibn Idr(cid:10)s, al-Dhakh(cid:3)ra, Beirut,
1994, vol. I, 355; Minh(cid:3)j(cid:10), Jaw(cid:1)hir al-‘Uq(cid:10)d, vol. I, 95; Khalilieh, Islamic Maritime
Law, 26.
27 M(cid:3)ward(cid:10),al-A(cid:6)k(cid:1)mal-Sul(cid:4)(cid:1)niyya,257.
28 Minh(cid:3)j(cid:10),Jaw(cid:1)hiral-‘Uq(cid:10)d,vol.I,95;Nuwayr(cid:10),Mu(cid:14)ammadIbnal-Q(cid:3)sim,Kit(cid:1)b
al-Ilm(cid:1)mbil-I‘l(cid:1)mf(cid:3)-m(cid:1)Jaratbi-hial-A(cid:6)k(cid:1)mwal-Um(cid:10)ral-Maq(cid:2)iyaf(cid:3)Waq‘atal-Iskan-
dariyya,Hyderabad,1969,vol.II,234-235.
Al-Qan(cid:4)ara (AQ) XXVII 1, enero-junio 2006, pp. 137-153 ISSN 0211-3589
WOMENATSEA:MODESTY,PRIVACY,ANDSEXUALMISCONDUCT 145
closet for her personal belongings and occasionally a projecting bal-
cony.29
TheexactspaceassignedforatraveleronIslamiccommercialships
isnotdefined.Buttheshipmaster,however,hadtoallocateaspacefor
eachtravelertosleep,storebelongingsandvictualsfordailyconsump-
tion, and pray. Muslim jurists required shipowners to allot enough
room for prayer; passenger space designated on Islamic freighters is,
thus, associated with body size, regardless of age or sex.30 They em-
phasizedthatMuslimworshippersshouldperformtheirreligiousduties
properly if at all possible: women were to stand behind the men or be
segregated from them, space permitting.31 Other than that, assigned
passenger space was associated with the ship’s structure and capacity,
the total number of passengers, quantity of cargo, and distance to be
traveled.32 Fewer passengers, less cargo, a longer distance between
portsoforiginanddestination,andawell-designedroomyvesselcould
increase the space allocated to a traveler and his/her supplies.33
29 Baghd(cid:3)d(cid:10),‘Abdal-La(cid:5)êf,al-If(cid:1)dawa’l-I‘tib(cid:1)r,translatedintoEnglishandedited
byK.H.Zandetal.,London,1965,183.Accommodationonboardwasprobablylinked
tothepassenger’ssocio-economicstatusandpersonalrelationshipwiththeowner,who
couldallotcomfortableplacesforpermanentpatronsandaffluentshippers.
30 Ibn Rushd, al-Bay(cid:1)n wal-Ta(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:3)l, vol. I, 444-445; Ibn al-Ukhuwwa, Ma‘(cid:1)lim
al-Qurba,324;Shamar(cid:3)n(cid:10),‘A.,Is‘(cid:1)fAhlal-‘A(cid:7)rbi-A(cid:6)k(cid:1)mal-Ba(cid:6)r,Riy(cid:3)(cid:6),1999,207-21,
222-228; Khalilieh, Islamic Maritime Law, 163. The average space for worshipper on-
boardshipissixfeetinlengthandtwofeetinbreadth(180(cid:1)60cm).Thisspaceallowan-
ceissimilartothatfixedinArticleII:9oftheRhodianSeaLaw.
31 Shamar(cid:3)n(cid:10),Is‘(cid:1)fAhlal-‘A(cid:7)r,139-249coverstheprayerissueaboardIslamicships
extensively.
32 Save for transoceanic vessels, oversized vessels, cruisers, and special ferries for
pleasure and entertainment, which had cabin compartments, promenades, baths, and
lounges,mostfreightershadadeckortwo.Passengerswere,asaresult,accommodated
either in the open or under temporary shelters. Baghd(cid:3)d(cid:10), al-If(cid:1)da wal-I‘tib(cid:1)r, 183;
Minh(cid:3)j(cid:10), Jaw(cid:1)hir al-‘Uq(cid:10)d, vol. I, 95; Nukhayl(cid:10), D., al-Sufun al-Isl(cid:1)miyya ‘al(cid:1) (cid:15)ur(cid:10)f
al-Mu‘jam, Alexandria, 1974, 101; Casson, L., Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient
World,Baltimore,1995,180-181.
33 TheRhodianSeaLawallocatesaspaceofthreecubitsbyonecubitforashipper
and casual free-passenger, who was allowed to bring two men-servants onboard if he
paid their passage. The Rhodian treatise degrades women travelers by assigning a
one-cubitplaceforeachwoman;achildnotfullygrownisentitledtoahalfawoman’s
space. See Ashburner, Rhodian Sea Law, 59-61, Articles II:8, 9, 13; Justice, General
Treatise, 80-81; Freshfield, Manual of Later Roman Law, 206; Dareste, “Lex Rhodia,”
28-29;Rougé,J.,Recherchessurl’organisationducommercemaritimeenMéditerranée
sousl’Empireromain,Paris,1966,263.DigestXIX,2,19,7,relatingtothestatusofan
infantbornonboard,absolvestheparentsfrompayingafare,thoughthechildoccupiesa
certainspace.SeeScott,CivilLaw,vol.V,86.
Al-Qan(cid:4)ara (AQ) XXVII 1, enero-junio 2006, pp. 137-153 ISSN 0211-3589
146 HASSANS.KHALILIEH
Religiousprinciplesandethics,manifestingone’sfaithinGod,in-
fluencedthebehaviorofMuslimstravelingbywater.Interactingwith
others, they had to follow the guidelines of the Qur’(cid:1)n and Sunna.
The Qur’(cid:1)n includes among the essential components of all personal
relationships: respect, kindness, honesty, tolerance, self-restraint, pa-
tience, forgiveness and compassion.34 Muslims religious ethics dis-
courage socializing between men and women, so that all persons
onboard had to obey navigation regulations and socio-religious eth-
ics. On one occasion al-M(cid:3)ward(cid:10) plainly states that on large ships
thereshouldbeopenplacesforwomenwheretheywouldnotdisplay
their charms before men.35 In another he orders shipowners and cap-
tains not to delay sailing for personal and financial considerations es-
pecially if there are women onboard. He instructs all mu(cid:6)tasibs to be
vigilant against interaction between the two sexes. He writes:
Donotpermit[ownersofships]topresstheirservicesonpeopleagainsttheir
will.Mostofthemtrytoattractpeopleonboard,spendinglonghourswaitingand
tryingtorecruitmore[passengers/shippers].Thismightproveharmfulto[those
onboard].Or,shouldtheshipownercauseadelay,itmighttemptmenandwomen
tocometogetherindiscourseduetotheirgatheringinthevessel,sotheyareat-
tractedtoeachother,incliningtowardimmorality.Suchcontactsarereprehensi-
bleactionsandforbidden;All(cid:3)h(alone)whosehelpcanbesought.36
Primary historical and legal sources also reveal that certain types
of ferries were built for carrying passengers for pleasure and enter-
tainment exclusively; al-Maqr(cid:10)z(cid:10) (766-845/1364-1442) refers to them
as mar(cid:1)kib al-nuzha wal-tafarruj.37 Since excursions at sea and on
rivers were accompanied very often by interactions between the
sexes,especiallyiftheparticipantswerewealthy,theservants,slaves,
singers and dancers who accompanied them were not expected to
34 Qur’(cid:1)n IX, 71: «And as for the believers, both men and women, they are close
untooneanother:they(all)enjointhedoingofwhatisrightandforbidthedoingofwhat
iswrong,andareconstantinprayer,andrenderthepurifyingdues,andpayheedunto
GodandHisApostle»;Qur‘(cid:1)nXXX,21:«Andamonghiswondersisthis:Hecreatesfor
youmatesoutofyourownkind,sothatyoumightinclinetowardsthem,andHeengen-
dersloveandtendernessbetweenyou:inthis,beholdtherearemessagesindeedforpeo-
plewhothink.»
35 M(cid:3)ward(cid:10),Al-A(cid:6)k(cid:1)mal-Sul(cid:4)(cid:1)niyya,257.
36 Idem,Al-Rutbaf(cid:3)(cid:20)alabal-(cid:15)isba,356.
37 Maqr(cid:10)z(cid:10), Taqiyy al-D(cid:10)n A(cid:14)mad Ibn ‘Al(cid:10), Al-Maw(cid:1)‘iz wal-I‘tib(cid:1)r f(cid:3) Dhikr
al-Khi(cid:4)a(cid:4)wal-(cid:18)th(cid:1)r,Cairo,1967,vol.II,143,145,150-151.
Al-Qan(cid:4)ara (AQ) XXVII 1, enero-junio 2006, pp. 137-153 ISSN 0211-3589