Modeling bilingualism from structure to chaos : in honor of Kees de Bot

318 Pages·2011·5.252 MB·English

by  Kees De Bot, Monika S Schmid, Wander Lowie

Modeling Bilingualism
Studies in Bilingualism (SiBil)
The focus of this series is on psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of
bilingualism. This entails topics such as childhood bilingualism, psychological
models of bilingual language users, language contact and bilingualism,
maintenance and shift of minority languages, and socio-political aspects of
bilingualism.
Editors
Dalila Ayoun Robert DeKeyser
University of Arizona University of Maryland
Editorial Board
Kees de Bot Aneta Pavlenko
University of Groningen Temple University
Thom Huebner Suzanne Romaine
San José State University Merton College, Oxford
Kenneth Hyltenstam Núria Sebastián-Gallés
Stockholm University University of Barcelona
Judith F. Kroll Merrill Swain
Pennsylvania State University Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
Johanne Paradis G. Richard Tucker
University of Alberta Carnegie Mellon University
Christina Bratt Paulston Li Wei
University of Pittsburgh University of London
Volume 43
Modeling Bilingualism. From Structure to Chaos. In Honor of Kees de Bot
Edited by Monika S. Schmid and Wander Lowie
Modeling Bilingualism
From Structure to Chaos
In Honor of Kees de Bot
Edited by
Monika S. Schmid
Wander Lowie
University of Groningen

John Benjamins Publishing Company
Amsterdam / Philadelphia
TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
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American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Modeling bilingualism from structure to chaos : in honor of Kees de Bot / edited by Monika
S. Schmid, Wander Lowie.
       p. cm. (Studies in Bilingualism, issn 0928-1533 ; v. 43)
Includes bibliographical references and index.

1.  Bilingualism. 2.  Second language acquisition.  I. De Bot, Kees. II. Schmid, Monika S. III.
Lowie, Wander, 1959-
P115.M59 2011
404’.2--dc22 2011002402
isbn 978 90 272 4182 5 (Hb ; alk. paper)
isbn 978 90 272 8700 7 (Eb)
© 2011 – John Benjamins B.V.
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any
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John Benjamins Publishing Co. · P.O. Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands
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Table of contents
Acknowledgement vii
introduction
Fromstructuretochaos:Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism 1
Diane Larsen-Freeman, Monika S. Schmid and Wander Lowie
Part I. Multilingualism
Psycholinguisticperspectivesonlanguageprocessinginbilinguals 15
Judith Kroll and Daan Hermans
Triggeredcode-switching:Evidencefrompicturenamingexperiments 37
Mirjam Broersma
Workingmemorycapacity,inhibitorycontrol,andproficiency
inasecondlanguage 59
Susan Gass and Junkyu Lee
ExplanationsofassociationsbetweenL1andL2literacyskills 85
Jan H. Hulstijn
Part II. Language attrition
Theacquisition,attriti on,andrelearningofmissionvocabulary 115
Lynne Hansen
Secondlanguageattrition:Theory,researchandchallenges 135
Lelia Murtagh
Contactxtime:ExternalfactorsandvariabilityinL1attrition 155
Monika S. Schmid
Theshiftingstructureofemotionsemanticsacrossimmigrantgenerations:
Effectsofthesecondcultureonthefirstlanguage 177
Robert W. Schrauf and Julia Sanchez
vi ModelingBilingualism
Part III. Language and aging
Bilingualism,code-switchingandaging:
Amythofattritionandataleofcollaboration 201
Michael Clyne
Languagereversionversusgeneralcognitivedecline:Towardsanew
taxonomyoflanguagechangeinelderlybilingualimmigrants 221
Merel Keijzer
Part IV. DST
Adynamicmodelofexpert-noviceco-adaptationduringlanguage
learningandacquisition 235
Paul van Geert, Henderien Steenbeek and Marijn van Dijk
Thedynamicsofmultilingualism:Levelt’sspeakingmodelrevisited 267
Wander Lowie and Marjolijn Verspoor
epilogue
Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism:Fromchaostostructure–
andbackagain 289
Bert Weltens
Addressforcorrespondence 303
Index 305
Acknowledgement
Manypeoplecontributedtotherealizationofthisvolume.Inthefirstinstance,it
wasachallengetokeepourworkasecretfromthepersoninwhosehonoritwas
conceived,inparticularsinceheisthevicedeaninchargeoftheresearchbudget
towhich,underothercircumstances,wemighthaveappliedforfundingtosup-
porttheproject.ItwasthroughthegeneroushelpofProf.JohnNerbonneand
theDepartmentofHumanitiescomputing(alfa informatica)thatwewereable
tonotonlycarryoutthetasksinvolvedbutalsodosoclandestinely.Wearemost
gratefultoShirleySteinvoortwhoworkedontheprojectasaresearchassistant.
Ourthanksalsogotothosecolleagueswhoactedasanonymousreviewersforthe
paperscollectedhere.Itisinthenatureoftheblindreviewingprocessthatwe
cannotrevealtheirnameshere,butwithouttheirhelpthepresentvolumewould
nothavebeenrealized.
Toourgrief,anddespitethefestiveoccasionofthispublication,wehaveto
endonamoresombrenote:Justafterthemanuscriptforthepresentcollection
wasfinished,newsofthedeathofMichaelClyne,acontributortothisvolume,
memberoftheeditorialboardofthisseriesandlong-timefriendofKeesdeBot,
reachedus.Hislosswillbedeeplyfeltbymany,notleastamongthemasizeable
proportionofthoseworkinginappliedlinguisticsworldwide.Weareallthemore
happythatwecouldincludehischapterhere.

introduction
From structure to chaos
Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism
DianeLarsen-Freeman*,MonikaS.Schmid**
andWanderLowie**
*UniversityofMichigan/**UniversityofGroningen
Thepresentvolumerepresentstheattempttochartthedevelopmentofthefield
ofbilingualismresearchoverthecourseofthepasttwodecades–atimeperiod
roughlydelimitedbyKeesdeBot’swidelyusedandciteddevelopmentofabilin-
gualspeechmodel,basedonLevelt’soriginalSpeakingmodel(Levelt1989)at
oneend,andhisapplicationofDynamicSystemsTheorytomultilingualdevel-
opmentattheother.Thisapproachwaschosennotonlybecauseitevidencesthe
lifetimeachievementofanexceptionalscholar(nottomentionahighlyrespected
andgreatlylovedhumanbeing),itisalsorepresentativeofamoregeneraltrend
whichcanbeobservednotonlyinappliedlinguisticsandthelanguagesciencesat
large,butwhichtosomeextentaffectsmostscientificendeavourtoday:ageneral
uneasewithneat,straightforward,linearandmonodimensionalsolutions,and
therecognitionthatrealityisusuallymessyandoftenunpredictable,sinceitis
definedbymultiple,diverseandinterdependentfactors.Thisiswhatthesubtitle
ofthepresentvolume,From structure to chaos,wasintendedtoexpress.

Models and structures
TheoriginsofmodernlinguisticsarecommonlylocatedwithSaussure’sCours de
Linguistique Généraleandtheadoptionofastructuralistframeworkandapproach
earlyinthe20thcentury.Havinghimselfbeentrainedinthediachronicschool
ofhistoricalcomparativelinguisticsandtheNeogrammariantradition,Saussure
optedforaframeworkthatcouldnotaccommodatetheperspectiveofconstant
changepresentinthepredominantandtransdisciplinaryscientificparadigmof
2 DianeLarsen-Freeman,MonikaS.SchmidandWanderLowie
theday,namelyevolution.1Thehumanities,ithadbeennoted,werenotyetready
foraperspectivewhichallowedforthe“arrowoftime”:“[t]heystilllackedthe
senseofasystem,amodelofhowanyformoforganizationpersists;sointhe
followingperiodtheydevelopedtheirowntheme,thatofstructuralism.Change
hadtobetakenofftheagendasothatwecouldstudyhowhumansystemswere
organized”(Halliday1991:42).
20thcenturylinguisticswasthuslargelycharacterizedbythesearchforstruc-
turalist,orlaterwell-structured,modelsthatwouldallowmappingthetrueand
underlyingnatureofhumanlinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoftheoftenincon-
sistentandsometimescontradictoryevidenceapparentinwhathumansactuallydo
withthatknowledge.Suchmodelstypicallyconsistofelementslikeboxes(which
haveaclearlydefinedinteriorandexterior,implyingthatwecandifferentiateafea-
tureorphenomenonanditscontext),arrows(implyingthatonethingcausesan-
other)ortrees(implyingsomekindofahierarchicalstructure)–onewell-known
exampleisLevelt’sSpeakingmodel(1989,seeFigure1).Thestrengthoftheseap-
proachesisthattheyhaveallowedlinguiststoarriveataninitialunderstandingof
theorganizationoflinguisticknowledge,oratleastanapproximationthereof.
However,thingstendtobecomemoreproblematicwhenthesemodelsareap-
pliedtonon-staticscenarios,suchaslinguisticchange,languagedevelopmentand
multilingualism.Insuchsituations,change,growth,butalsolossanddeteriora-
tion,arekeyelementsthatneedtobetakenintoaccount–andtheydonotmerely
characterizeinconvenientbuttransitorystageswhichthelearnerhastopassin
developingalanguagesystem.Bilingualsare,asFrançoisGrosjeansofamously
pointedout,notmerelytwomonolingualsrolledintoone(Grosjean1982);their
knowledge,processinganduseoftheirlanguagesystemsdiffersininteresting
waysfromthoseofspeakerswithonlyonelanguage.Linguistswhoconvincingly
wanttoaccountfortheenigmathatishumanlanguagehavetodevelopmodels
andexplanationsthatareabletoaccommodateincomplete,transitory,unstable,

changeableandfossilizedlanguages.
Oneofthemostinfluentialattemptstoextendamodelofmonolinguallan-
guageprocessingtobilingualismisDeBot’s1992adaptationofLevelt’sSpeak-
ingmodel(seeFigure2).Boththeoriginalmodelanditsbilingualoffspring
arediscussedinseveralcontributionstothisvolume(byLowie&Verspoor,by
Weltens),sowewillnotgointoitindetailhere.Sufficeittosaythatthispub-
licationmarkedthebeginningofaneraofmodelsofthebilingualmindand
1. Diachrony,whilebeinganessentialcomponentofSaussure’sapproachtolanguage,could
notprovideatrueperspectiveonchangeasitoccurred:thestructuralistdiachronicapproach
consistsofaseriesof‘snapshots’(i.e.,synchronicobservations)whichoccuroveralongerpe-
riodoftime,andcanthusmerelyapproximateanunderstandingofchangeasithappens.