Table Of ContentMinorities and nationalisM
in turkish law
Cultural diversity and law
series editor:
Prakash shah, school of law, Queen Mary, university of london, uk
Around the world, most states are faced with difficult issues arising out of cultural
diversity in their territories. Within the legal field, such issues span across matters
of private law through to public and constitutional law. At international level too
there is now considerable jurisprudence regarding ethnic, religious and cultural
diversity. In addition, there are several layers of legal control – from communal
and religious regulation to state and international regulation. This multiplicity of
norm setting has been variously termed legal pluralism, inter-legality or inter-
normativity and provides a fascinating lens for academic analysis that links up to
cultural diversity in new and interesting ways. The umbrella of cultural diversity
encompasses various population groups throughout the world ranging from national,
ethnic, religious or indigenous groupings. This series particularly welcomes work
that is of comparative interest, concerning various state jurisdictions as well as
different population groups.
also in the series
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trust, Culture, and law in dakar
Julie Paquin
ISBN 978-1-4094-4488-6
Judging in the Islamic, Jewish and Zoroastrian Legal Traditions
A Comparison of Theory and Practice
Janos Jany
ISBN 978-1-4094-3716-1
Socio-Legal Integration
Polish Post-2004 EU Enlargement Migrants in the United Kingdom
Agnieszka Kubal
ISBN 978-1-4094-3699-7
Law, Religious Freedoms and Education in Europe
Edited by Myriam Hunter-Henin
ISBN 978-1-4094-2730-8
Minorities and nationalism
in turkish law
derya Bayir
© Derya Bayır 2013
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
Derya Bayır has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to
be identified as the author of this work.
Published by
Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Bayır, Derya.
Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. – (Cultural diversity and law)
1. Minorities–Legal status, laws, etc.–Turkey–History. 2. Discrimination–Law and
legislation–Turkey–History. 3. Nationalism–Turkey–History.
i. title ii. series
342.5’61085-dc23
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bayır, Derya.
Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law / By Derya Bayır.
p. cm. – (Cultural diversity and law)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4094-2007-1 (hardback : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4094-2008-8 (ebook)
1. Minorities–Legal status, laws, etc.–Turkey–History. 2. Discrimination–Law and
legislation–Turkey–History. 3. Nationalism–Turkey. I. Title.
KKX2467.M56B39 2012
342.56108’7–dc23
2012026015
ISBN 9781409420071 (hbk)
ISBN 9781409420088 (ebk – PDF)
ISBN 9781409472544 (ebk – ePUB)
IV
Printed and bound in Great Britain by the
MPG Books Group, UK.
Contents
List of Abbreviations ix
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction 1
1 The Ottoman Empire and Minorities 19
1.1 The Millet System 23
1.2 ‘Organisational Diversity’ as a Source of Plurality
in the Empire 28
1.3 Emergence of New Concepts in the Ottoman Legal System 32
1.3.1 The Ideal of Egalitarianism 35
1.3.2 Secularization of the Law 38
1.3.3 From Corporate Identities to Individual Citizen:
Ottomanism and the Transformation of Identity 41
1.3.4 Emerging Ethno-Religious Boundaries of the Ottoman
State and Nation 43
1.4 The İTC Era and the End of Pluralism 49
1.4.1 Linguistic Nationalism 55
1.4.2 Economic Nationalism 58
1.4.3 Settlement Policies 60
2 Transition to the Turkish Nation-State 65
2.1 Muslim and Non-Muslim Minorities in the Discourse of the
Independence War 67
2.1.1 Non-Muslims 68
2.1.2 Non-Turkish Muslims 70
2.1.3 Alevis, Nestorians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, Yezidis 76
2.2 The Lausanne Peace Conference and Treaty 1922–23 79
2.2.1 Population Exchange 80
2.2.2 The Return of Armenian Refugees 82
2.2.3 The Muslim Minorities’ Position at Lausanne 83
2.2.4 The Kurds and the Mosul Issue 85
2.2.5 The Lausanne Treaty 88
vi Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law
3 Management of Diversity in the Turkish Nation-State, 1923–60 95
3.1 Cultural Nationalism: ‘Turkification from the Cultural
Perspective’ 97
3.1.1 Language Policies 98
3.1.2 Reconstruction of the ‘Turk’ through History 109
3.1.3 Elimination of Traditional, Religious and Social
Structures 111
3.1.4 End of Legal Plurality 119
3.2 Turkification of the Economy 120
3.2.1 Economic Turkification through the Law 122
3.2.2 Turkification of Economy through Extra-Legal Means 126
3.3 Assimilation and Turkification Policies 130
3.3.1 Turkification by Resettlement 134
3.3.2 The Inspectorate Generals (Umumi Müfettişlikler) 139
4 The Myth of the Civic State and Turkish Ethnie in Law 143
4.1 Who is a ‘Turk’?: The Ethnic Boundary of the Concept of
‘Turk’ in Law 145
4.2 The Concept of ‘Turkish Race’ in Law 154
4.2.1 Favoured Status of Foreigners of ‘Turkish Race’ 157
4.2.2 Immigration of Türk Soylu People 160
4.3 The Role of Turkish Language in Legal ‘Othering’ 163
4.3.1 Language in Education 166
4.3.2 Broadcasting 169
4.3.3 Politics and Public Life 171
4.3.4 Private Life 174
4.4 Exceptions to the Absolute Domination of the Turkish
Language 181
5 Nation and Minority in the Jurisprudence of the Turkish
Constitutional Court 187
5.1 The AYM’s Jurisprudence in the Political Party Closure
Cases 188
5.2 Re-reading the AYM’s Jurisprudence from a Minority
Perspective 190
5.2.1 The Concepts of ‘Nation’ and ‘Turkish Nation’ 192
5.2.2 The AYM’s Approach to the Minority Concept 202
5.3 Examining Minority Qualities in the Kurdish Case 210
5.4 Citizenship in the Human Rights and Democracy Context 216
Contents vii
6 ‘The right to equal concern and respect’: Equality,
Anti-Discrimination and Anti-Racism Laws in Turkey 219
6.1 Equality before the Law 220
6.2 Non-Discrimination 225
6.3 Implementing Non-Discrimination in Law and Jurisprudence 229
6.3.1 Non-Discrimination in the Exercise of Economic
Activities 229
6.3.2 ‘Hate Crimes’ and ‘Hate Speech’ 232
6.3.3 Inciting Hatred and Animosity 237
6.3.4 Insulting Turkishness 243
6.4 Racism in Legislation and Jurisprudence 249
6.4.1 The Trial of 1944: Türkçülük Davası 251
6.4.2 ‘Minority Racism’: The AYM, the DDKO and İsmail
Beşikçi Cases 254
Conclusion 259
List of Cases and Laws 263
Bibliography 271
Index 293
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List of Abbreviations
AKDTYK Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu (Atatürk High
Institution of Culture, Language and History)
AYM Anayasa Mahkemesi (Constitutional Court)
CERD Committee on Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
CHP Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party)
CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child
CSTD Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi (Republican Senate Minute
Journal)
Dan (…) D Danıştay (…) Dairesi (Council of State (…) Chamber)
DDP Demokrasi ve Değişim Partisi (Democracy and Change Party)
DEHAP Demokratik Halk Partisi (Democratic People’s Party)
DEP Demokrasi Partisi (Democracy Party)
DKP Demokratik Kitle Partisi (Democratic Mass Party)
DMTD Danışma Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi (Journal of the Parliamentary
Record)
DP Demokrat Parti (Democrat Party)
DTP Demokratik Toplum Partisi (Democratic Society Party)
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
ECtHR European Court of Human Rights
EP Emek Partisi (Labour Party)
HADEP Halkın Demokrasi Partisi (People’s Democracy Party)
Hak-Par Hak ve Özgürlükler Partisi (Rights and Freedom Party)
HEP Halkın Emek Partisi (People’s Labour Party)
ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICERD International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
İTC İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti (Committee of Union and Progress)
KHK Kanun Hükmünde Kararname (Secondary Law)
MBKGKT Milli Birlik Kurulu Genel Kurul Tutanakları (National Unity
Committee Plenary Session Minutes)
MHP Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi (Nationalist Movement Party)
MK Türk Medeni Kanunu (Turkish Civil Code)
MM Meclis-i Mebusan (Ottoman Parliament)
MMTD Millet Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi (National Assembly Minutes Journal)
MMZC Meclisi Mebusan Zabıt Ceridesi (National Assembly Minutes Journal)
MoE Ministry of Education (Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı)
