Mineral Exploration: Principles and Applications

333 Pages·2013·24.647 MB·English

by  Haldar S.K.

Mineral Exploration
Principles and Applications
S. K. Haldar
Emeritus Scientist, Dept. of Applied Geology &
Environmental System Management,
Presidency University, Kolkata-700 073,
and IMX Resources Limited, Australia.
Formerly, Hindustan Zinc Limited,
Hindustan Copper Limited, ESSO INC
and BIL Infratech Ltd, India.
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ISBN978-0-12-416005-7
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TN270.M65542013
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Dedicated to all my students in mineral exploration
e Past, Present and Future e
Who taught me the art of teaching, motivated me to keep learning
and galvanized me to write this book
And
Little Srishti and Srishta
Who inspired me to love Mother Nature!
Preface
I was often fascinated and enjoyed delivering occasional with holistic approach, covering entire scope of mineral
technical lectures to the students and research scholars of exploration and beyond during their academic study
academic institutions throughout my 37 years of profes- and as reference book while in job. The book “Mineral
sional period with ESSO Standard Eastern Inc ExplorationdPrinciples and Applications” is the
(1966e1967), Hindustan Copper Limited (1968e1975) outgrowthofmyclasslectures.Thetextisframedkeeping
and Hindustan Zinc Limited (1975e2001). I also took thestudentspursuingbothundergraduateandmasterslevel
pleasure in addressing group of geoscientists, mining courses in Pure and Applied Geology and allied subjects,
engineersandteachingfacultiesfromindustryandnational teachers and professionals in mineral exploration, mining,
institutions during various specialized training programs. beneficiation,environmental system management, mineral
ButmydreamofteachingstudentscametruewhenIgotthe policies and acts behind the scene through out. This book
opportunity, after relinquishing myjob, tojoin Presidency willalsoendurethenecessitiesofthecandidatesappearing
College, Kolkata as Emeritus Scientist. Department of for federal, state, regional and provincial geological
Science and Technology (DST), Government of India, services, forest and environment jobs, federal and state
sponsoredtwoofmyresearchprojectssuccessivelyduring administrative and professional services, academic
2003e2006 and 2008e2010. As a spin off activity and entrance tests and other competitive written examinations
ethicalcommitmentsIstartedregularteaching,boththeory andinterviews.Myeffortsinthisattemptwillbejudgedby
and practical, onvarious aspects of mineral exploration to thelikingofthesubjectandsuccessofmystudentsdpast,
the postgraduate students of Applied Geology and Envi- present and future.
ronmental System Management of the department. My “Mineral ExplorationdPrinciples and Applications”
teachingspreecontinuedtoM.ScandM.Techstudentsof divided into 15 chapters, discusses the basic elements of
IndianSchoolofMines,Dhanbad,too. exploration on modern thoughts and information adopting
Since 2004, I am retained by M/s Goldstream Mining the most desirable order and methods of presentation.
NL/IMX Resources Limited, Perth, Australia, as explora- Each chapter defines the theory (Principles) first followed
tion consultant looking for their interests in platinum, by actual practices (Applications) in the field and indus-
chromium,nickel,copper,goldandassociatedmineralsin tries.Thechaptershavebeendesignedtosetupwithneed
India with extensive field visits. Other recent assignments of the subject, initial definitions, types and stages of
are consultancy with M/s McNally Bharat Ltd (2010) and mineral discovery, exploration methods, namely, geolog-
BIL Infratech Ltd (2011e2012), India, for technical and ical, geochemical, geophysical, photo geology and
economic evaluation of zinceleadecopper projects in remotesensing,sampling,mineralresourceandorereserve
Saudi Arabia, Australia, South Africa, Tunisia, Mexico, estimation, classification system and code, statistical
Eritrea, Montenegro and Chile including couple of field and geo-statistical applications, mining practices, mineral
visits. beneficiation, environmental aspects and sustainable
Duringmyformalclassroomteachingassignment,my development,economicevaluationandfeasibilitystudyof
endeavor was to mix my long practical multipurpose mineral property. The chapters start with mineral policy,
industrial experiences, technical consultancy to multina- mining acts and end with 11 exploration case histories for
tional companies and DST research projects with the the international readers. The book provides 350 illustra-
essence of academic aspect of the subject. In this process, tions and field-industrial images for systematic represen-
Ialsotriedtoreadthestudents’attitude,aptitude,mindset, tation ofthevarious concepts and actual procedures.
body language and their expectations. It helps me to I have consulted many technical books during the
improvemyclarityofthoughtsandexpressiondaybyday. preparation of the manuscript. The concepts of those
Icouldvisualizetheirlevelofunderstandingofthesubject authors have clarified many of my questions. I have
whileevaluatingtheiranswerpapers.Itseemedtomethat specifically acknowledged those books and authors and
one of the expectations of the students from both the recommendedasadditionalstudymaterialstomyreaders.
institutes is to gift them a comprehensive text book, Prof P. R. Mohanty and Prof Shalivan from ISM critically
xiii
xiv Preface
reviewed Chapter 5 on “Exploration Geophysics”. I often BIL Infratech Ltd. I sincerely acknowledge and state my
shared with Prof A. B. Roy, FNA and Emeritus Scientist, indebtedness to each Institution. It was my learning expe-
Presidency University, on various aspects of the book. rience with Elsevier and I enjoyed my association with
I acknowledge each one of peer reviewers, namely, Prof SiddharthaGhosh,EditorialCoordinator,Asia-Pacific,Mrs
Martin Hale, University of Twente, The Netherlands, Linda Versteeg, Associate Acquisition Editor, The
DrD.B.Sikka,BarfanisaiEnterpriseInc.Canada,ProfE. Netherlands, John Fedor, Senior Acquisitions Editor, NY,
C.Nehru,BrooklynCollege,NY,ProfB.C.Sarkar,HOD, Ms Morrissey Kathryn (Katy), Editorial Project Manager,
ISM, Dhanbad, Dr William Petuk, Canada, Finn Barrett, MA and Poulouse Joseph, Project Manager- Book Publi-
IMX Resource Ltd, Perth, L. Moharana, BHP Billiton, cationDivisionandteaminIndiafortheirgreatfriendliness
Perth,ProfG.N.Jadhav,IITMumbaiandProfAsisBasu, throughout development of this book. I appreciate each
RochesterUniversity,NY,fortheirkeeninteresttoevaluate member of the design, production and marketing team for
thebookproposal,decisiveanalysisinthecontextofglobal sincere collaboration.
scenario and very best encouraging reflections articulated Acknowledgement isthe privilegeof the author. Many
about the book. My inquisitive students, with whose able colleagues from industry, teachers and students, in partic-
aid I applied the concept, supported me through and ular, encouraged and enriched me with valuable sugges-
through, and I would like to thank each one of them. Ms tions for improvement. I do not wish to record specific
NandiniKar,oneofmyPGstudents,hasgonethroughthe names with a view not to miss any one. However, I am
entire manuscript for its acceptability among them. Ms unable to resist mentioning my two little grand children,
Joyasree Sinha drafted mostof the linedrawings. “Srishti and Srishta”, who did not allow me to work
The book could be conceived and finished at the Pres- during their vacations with us, but infused tremendous
idency University with the opportunity for class room energyinmewhentheyleftforUSA.Andfinally,Iextend
teaching and evaluation provided by Prof H. N. Bhatta- my whole hearted thanks to my wife, “Swapna”, whose
charya, HOD, Department of Applied Geology and Envi- enthusiasmandcriticismkeptmeontoesandsustainedme
ronment System Management. Prof Prabir Das Gupta and toimprove on everyaspectofacademic character.
Ms Ausmita Kaviraj took sincere interest for image
conversionand software exposure,respectively. "I do not know what I may appear to theworld; but to myself I
Swami Buddhadevananda, President, Rama Krishna seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and
Math, Barisa, Kolkata, Prof Daya Kishore and Nandita diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or
Hazra, S. N. Medical College, Agra, Prof R. V. Karanth, aprettiershellthanordinary,whilethegreatoceanoftruthlayall
M. S. University, Vadodara and Mr C. R. Chakraborty, undiscoveredbeforeme..IfIamanything,whichIhighlydoubt,
Kolkatainspiredmethroughoutthemanuscriptpreparation. Ihavemademyselfsobyhardwork"
All the chapters are edited by “Soumi”, my daughter, eSirIsaacNewton.
whileshecametorelaxwithusonDurgaPujaorsummer
As always, I acknowledge the supreme entity that makes
vacations (2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012) and our visit to
sense of it all, and urges us to seek for ourselves the ulti-
them at USA (2004, 2005, 2011) followed by online mate truth. In that pursuit, this treatise is dedicatedd
communication from Chicago, Florida and Studio City,
“To strive,to seek, tofind,and notto yield”.
CA. Suratwant, my son-in-law, who advocated the title of
thebooktoo,ismysourceofinspirationforalltimesinthis S.K. Haldar
endeavor.
Presidency University, Kolkata
Mostoftheexamplesandimages,Ihaveshared,arethe
29th June, 2012
life time academic collection during my association with
M/s Hindustan Zinc Limited, Goldstream Mining NL and
List of Acronyms
used in this book
GENERAL
TM ThematicMapper
tpa/tpy tonesperannum/year
AngloAmerican Globalleaderinmining
tpd tonesperday
BM BureauofMines
UNFC UnitedNationsFrameworkClassification
BHPBilliton Aleadingglobalresourcescompany
USGS UnitedStateGeologicalsurvey/
BIL BinaniInfratechLtd,India
USBM UnitedStateBureauofMines
CAPEX CapitalExpenditure
UTMSystem UniversalTransverseMercatorSystem
Goldstream GoldstreamMiningNL,Perth,Australia
VCR VerticalCraterRetreat
GDP GrossDomesticProduct
VHMS VolcanicHostedMassiveSulfide
GSI GeologicalSurveyofIndia
VMS VolcanogenicMassiveSulfide
HCL HindustanCopperLimited,Kolkata,India
VRM VerticalRetreatMining
HZL HindustanZincLimited,Udaipur,India
WHO WorldHealthOrganization
IMX IMXResourcesLimited,Perth,Australia
ZM ZawarGroupofMines,India
IS Indianstandards
LBMA LondonBullionMarketAssociation
LME LondonMetalExchange MINERALS
JORC (Australasian)JointOreReserves
Committee Cp Chalcopyrite
MCDR MineralConservationandDevelopment Ga Galena
Rules Po Pyrrhotite
MCR MineralConcessionRules Py Pyrite
MECL MineralExplorationCorporationLimited, Sp Sphalerite
Nagpur,India
MMRDACT MinesandMinerals(Regulation&
METALS
Development)Act
MPRDA Minerals&PetroleumResources Ag Silver
DevelopmentAct Al Aluminium
ML MiningLease/Licence As Arsenic
MOE MinistryofEnvironment Au Gold
MOF MinistryofForest Bi Bismuth
MOM MinistryofMines Ca Calcium
MSS Multi-SpectralScanner Cd Cadmium
MtIsa MountIsamine,Australia Ce Cerium
MVT MississippiValleyType Co Cobalt
NMP NationalMineralPolicy Cr Chromium
OB OverBurden Cu Copper
OMS OreManShift F Fluorine
OPEX OperatingExpenditure Fe Iron
PL ProspectingLicence He Helium
RA RampuraAguchamine,India Hg Mercury
RD RajpuraDaribamine,India K Potassium
ROM Run-of-Mine La Lanthanum
RP ReconnaissancePermit Li Lithium
SEDEX SedimentaryExhalative Mn Manganese
SK SindesarKhurdZn-Pb-Agdeposit,India Mo Molybdenum
Sp.Gr SpecificGravity N Nitrogen
xv
xvi List ofAcronymsusedin this book
Na Sodium EuroMembers EUR €
Nd Neodymium IndiaRupee INR
Ni Nickel SaudiArabiaRiyal SAR
Pb Lead SouthAfrica ZAR R
Pd Palladium TunisiaDinar TND
Pm Promethium UnitedKingdomPound GBP £
Pt Platinum UnitedStatesDollar USD $
Te Tellurium ZimbabweDollar ZWD Z$
Rb Rubidium
Rn Radon
Sb Antimony WEIGHTS
Se Selenium‘
Bt Billiontonnes
Si Silicon
lb pound
Sm Samarium
Kg Kilogram
Sr Strontium
Mt Milliontonnes
U Uranium
t tonne
Zn Zinc
TIME SCALE LENGTH
AD AnnoDomoni(yearafterJesusChrist’sbirth) m metre
BC BeforeChrist(year) cm centimetre
Ga Gigga(109)orBillionage(years)
Ma Million(106)age(years)
CURRENCY
Currency Currency
Country/Currency Code Image
AustraliaDollar AUD $
CanadaDollar CAD $
ChilePeso CLP $
About the Author
postgraduatestudentsofthedepartmentandoftenatIndian
School of Mines, Dhanbad. He is consultant with interna-
tionalexplorationentities,namely,GoldstreamMiningNL/
IMXResourcesLtd,AustraliaandBILInfratechLtd,India.
Hisprofessionhasoftenrequiredvisitsandinteractionwith
experts of zinceleadegoldetinechromiumenickel and
platinum mines and exploration camps of Australiad
Tasmania, Canada, Germany, Portugal, Saudi Arabia,
France, Italy, Nepal, The Netherlands, Switzerland, Egypt
andUSA.Heisalife-fellowofTheMiningGeologicaland
Metallurgical Institutes of India and Indian Geological
Congress. Dr Haldar is recipient of “Dr J. Coggin Brown
Memorial (Gold Medal) for Geological Sciences” by
S.K.Haldar(SwapanKumarHaldar)hasbeenapracticing MGMI. He authored “Exploration Modeling of Base
veteran in the field of Mineral Exploration and metal Metal Deposits”, 2007, Elsevier. Dr Haldar has a unique
mining forthe past four andhalf decades. He receivedhis professional blend of mineral exploration, evaluation and
B. Sc (Hons) and M. Sc degree from Calcutta University mineral economics with an essence of classroom teaching
and Doctorate from Indian Institute of Technology, ofpostgraduatestudentsoftwocelebrityUniversitiesover
Kharagpur.Themajorpartofhiscareerfrom1966hasbeen the lastone decade.
focusedonbaseandnoblemetalsexploration/miningwith
short stopover at ESSO Petroleum, Hindustan Copper
Limited and finally Hindustan Zinc Limited where he S.K. Haldar
undertook a varied set of technical roles and managerial Emeritus Scientist, Department of Applied Geology
responsibilities. Since 2003 he is associated as Emeritus Presidency University, Kolkata
ScientistwithDepartmentofAppliedGeology,Presidency Former Chief Managerd
University, Kolkata and teaching mineral exploration to Geology Hindustan Zinc Limited, India
xvii
Chapter 1
Mineral Exploration
Chapter Outline
1.3.2.3. Prospecting 9
1.1. Introduction 1
1.3.2.4. GeneralExploration 10
1.1.1. WhyMineralExploration? 1 1.3.2.5. DetailExploration 10
1.2. Definition 2
1.3.2.6. OngoingExploration 10
1.2.1. MineralandRock 2 1.3.2.7. ExplorationScheme 10
1.2.2. Ore 2 1.4. MineralPolicyandAct 12
1.2.3. OreDeposit 7 1.4.1. Australia 12
1.2.4. PrimeCommodity,AssociatedCommodityand 1.4.2. Canada 13
TraceElement 7 1.4.3. Chile 14
1.2.5. Protore 7 1.4.4. India 15
1.2.6. GangueMineralsandTailing 8 1.4.5. Portugal 17
1.2.7. DeleteriousSubstances 8 1.4.6. SouthAfrica 18
1.3. Exploration 8
1.4.7. Tunisia 18
1.3.1. DiscoveryType 8 1.4.8. RoyaltiesandTaxation 20
1.3.1.1. GreenfieldDiscovery 8 1.4.9. LeaseApplication 20
1.3.1.2. BrownfieldDiscovery 8 1.5. MineraltoMetaldAFullCircle 21
1.3.2. StagesofExploration 8 FurtherReading 21
1.3.2.1. Reconnaissance 9
1.3.2.2. LargeAreaProspecting 9
state-of-the-art exploration techniques, trained man
Goodexplorationplanninganddecisionmakingemeasurerisk
power, scientific knowledge, ample experience, high-end
andreward;persistwherethegeologyisencouragingandwhere
data processing system and interpretation skill. The total
therewardswillbelarge;recognizewhenyouhavefailed.
procedure would be achieved step by step in a dynamic
dCameronR.Allen,ComincoLtd.
and logical sequence.
1.1.1. Why Mineral Exploration?
1.1. INTRODUCTION The mineral reserves and resources, annual productionvs.
consumption and index of per capita spending of any
Mineralsandmetalsareoneoftheessentialcomponentsfor commodity are the measures that rank the status of
thegrowth of human society. Needs of survival taught the acountryasdeveloped,developingorunderdeveloped.The
prehistoricPaleolithicmentheusesofstonesastoolseven per capita consumption of zinc in India during 2008 was
before 20,000 years ago. The discovery of minerals, its verylowat0.43kgagainstaworldaverageof4.3kg.The
exploitationandusesbecamemanyfoldswiththeadventof higher consumption during the same period was shared
civilizationand iscontinuingtilldate. between Australia (12.7kg), South Korea (11.3kg),
A mineral deposit, more meaningfully concentration Canada (5.6kg), Japan (5kg), USA (4.1kg) and China
ofspecificmineral,istoosmallasizeincomparisontothe (2.7kg).ThepolicymakersintheGovernmentandPrivate
Earth’s crust. Deposits near the surface had been discov- Sectorsallocatefundsforlong-andshort-termexploration
ered over the centuries, mined out and metals extracted. plan programs guided by the demand-supply trend of all
Future searches will be aimed at naturally occurring commodities as a whole. The fund allocation has special
concealed types. It may rarely show surface signatures significanceforstrategicanddeficientminerals.Theannual
likeweatheredoutcropandarecoveredundertransported percent satisfaction between consumption and indigenous
soil. The new discovery will not be easy. It will require production of zinc metal between 1992-1993 and
1
MineralExploration.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-416005-7.00001-5
Copyright(cid:1)2013ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2 Mineral Exploration
2009-2010 at an annual growth rate of 8-10% has been
depictedin Fig.1.1.
The existing demand-supply disparity can be reduced
by expanding the mining and smelting capacity with the
on hand ore reserves as short-term ad hoc measure. The
ultimate way out for long-term standpoint would be
continuous efforts to enhance reserve and resource base.
This is possible by new search, discovery and adequate
exploration of mineral deposits, economic mining
and smelting. The rate of reserve augmentation must
commensurate with annual growth of the particular
commodity (Fig. 1.2). The working group of sustainable
mineral resource development program plans on the
same analogy for future exploration investment in the
FIGURE1.2 Projectedreserverequirementofzincatanannualgrowth
country.
rateof8-10%upto2015at90%mining-smeltingcapacityinIndia.
Theprocessofmineraldiscoveryanditsdevelopment
toatargetproductioncentertakesalonggestationperiod
of about 5-20 years. In terms of business requirements, Someofthecommonbasicterminologiesthatwouldbe
this translates to a very high-risk tolerance at all levels, referred frequently in the subsequent chapters are defined
extensive period of time and rich pockets for a sustained here after.
cash flow. A small business unit in this field may often
end its brief tenure with a total loss, in case of failure to
1.2. DEFINITION
make an economic return. Indeed, many of the discov-
eries are not viable at current market prices. Prima facie, 1.2.1. Mineral and Rock
the facts might indicate that investment in these ventures
is a waste. However, one discovery out of 100 or even “Mineral” is a homogeneous inorganic substance that
1000 attempts may pay back the entire efforts. The task occursnaturally,usuallyincrystallineformwithadefinite
of policy maker is to plan timely allocation of funds for chemical composition. It is generally in solid form, the
exploration and technology research of various mineral exceptions being mercury, natural water and fossil fuel.
types, predicated on long-term demand and supply The common rock-forming minerals (RFM) are quartz
scenarios. Therefore, an investment-friendly environ- (SiO2), orthoclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8), plagioclase
ment, transparency and will of the Federal and the State feldspar (CaNaAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), mica group
Government and exploration companies and the political such as muscovite (H2KAL3 (SiO4)3) and biotite
commitment of the regime are essential for mineral (H2K(MgFe)3Al (SiO4)3). The common ore-forming
development in any country. minerals (OFM) are hematite (Fe2O3), cassiterite (SnO2),
chalcopyrite (CuFeS ), sphalerite (ZnS), galena (PbS),
2
baryte (BaSO 2H O), gypsum (CaSO ), apatite
4 2 4
(Ca (PO ) (F,Cl,OH)), etc.
5 4 3
“Rock” is an assemblage of mineral(s) formed under
natural process of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
origin. The common rocks are basalt, granite, quartzite,
sandstone, limestone,marbleand mica-schist.
1.2.2. Ore
In the past, the word “ore” was restricted exclusively to
naturallyoccurringmaterialfromwhichoneormoretypes
of metal could be mined and extracted at a profit. The
economic deposits comprising of industrial minerals,
rocks, bulk materials, gemstones and fossil fuel were
excluded from ore. The concept has undergone radical
changes over the years. The Institution of Mining and
FIGURE 1.1 Satisfaction (%) of demand and supply of zinc metal Metallurgy, UK, currently defines “Ore as a solid natu-
between1992-1993and2009-2010inIndia. rally occurring mineral aggregate of economic interest