Table Of Contentii
Military Neuroscience and the
Coming Age of Neurowarfare
Krishnan describes military applications of neuroscience research and emerging
neurotechnology with relevance to the conduct of armed conflict and law
enforcement. This work builds upon literature by scholars such as Moreno and
Giordano and fills an existing gap, not only in terms of reviewing available and future
neurotechnologies and relevant applications, but by discussing how the military
pursuit of these technologies fits into the overall strategic context. The first to sketch
future neurowarfare by looking at its potentials as well as its inherent limitations, this
book’s main theme is how military neuroscience will enhance and possibly transform
both classical psychological operations and cyber warfare. Its core argument is that
nonlethal strategies and tactics could become central to warfare in the first half of the
twenty- first century. This creates both humanitarian opportunities in making war less
bloody and burdensome as well as some unprecedented threats and dangers in terms
of preserving freedom of thought and will usher in a coming age where minds can be
manipulated with great precision.
Armin Krishnan, East Carolina University, USA
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Emerging Technologies, Ethics and International Affairs
Series Editors: Steven Barela, Jai C. Galliott,
Avery Plaw, Katina Michael
This series examines the crucial ethical, legal and public policy questions
arising from or exacerbated by the design, development and eventual adoption
of new technologies across all related fields, from education and engineering
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This series encourages submission of cutting- edge research monographs
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5. Healthcare Robots: Ethics, Design and Implementation
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iiiiii
Military Neuroscience and the
Coming Age of Neurowarfare
Armin Krishnan
iivv
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Armin Krishnan, individual chapters.
The right of Armin Krishnan to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
Names: Krishnan, Armin, 1975– author.
Title: Military neuroscience and the coming age of
neurowarfare / Armin Krishnan.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016015423 | ISBN 9781472473912 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781315595429 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Military art and science – Technological innovations. |
Neurosciences – Government policy – United States. | Neurosciences –
Moral and ethical aspects. | Military research – United States. | Military
weapons – Technological innovations. | Psychological warfare – United States. |
Electronics in military engineering – United States. | Human engineering –
United States. | Neurosciences – Social aspects. | Military art and science –
Technological innovations – Moral and ethical aspects.
Classification: LCC U42.5.K75 2016 | DDC 623–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016015423
ISBN: 978- 1- 4724- 7391- 2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 315- 59542- 9 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Out of House Publishing
vv
Contents
List of tables vi
Acknowledgements vii
Abbreviations ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Cold War brain research and germ warfare 17
3 Neuroscientific enhancement 46
4 Intelligence and prediction 76
5 The degradation technologies I: Drugs and bugs 97
6 The degradation technologies II: Waves and bytes 116
7 The strategic context 139
8 Neurowarfare 169
9 Dangers and solutions 196
Bibliography 230
Index 265
vvii
Tables
1.1 Neuroscience initiatives 6
2.1 Mind control programs during the MK ULTRA era 25
3.1 Stimulants and supplements for combating fatigue and
enhancing cognitive functions 49
3.2 Brainwaves and corresponding mental states 56
3.3 Brain stimulation methods 60
5.1 Calmatives 100
6.1 The electromagnetic spectrum 123
7.1 The new spectrum of conflict 166
8.1 The domains of warfare 171
8.2 The spectrum of neurowarfare 194
8.3 The evolution of political warfare 194
vviiii
Acknowledgements
More than a decade ago, I discovered John Marks’ fascinating book In
Search of the Manchurian Candidate, which described CIA MK ULTRA
research during the Cold War. This was my first introduction to the topic
of ‘mind control’ and since then it has become almost an obsession for me.
Often dismissed as ‘conspiracy theory’, the reality of mind control is simply
undeniable if one dares to look at the evidence. At the same time, a lot of ink
has been spilled over the question of whether humans can be brainwashed
and their behaviour controlled to the point that they act against their basic
drives and moral convictions or whether minds can be ‘read’. Luckily, there
are good chances that neuroscience will be able to definitively answer these
questions within a few decades at the most. I am thankful to Jonathan
Moreno for making the issue of mind control and brain warfare a subject
of serious academic inquiry and for raising public awareness of the topic.
His 2006 book Mind Wars eventually encouraged me to pursue research
into military neuroscience and its significance to national and international
security. I hope that the end product of my efforts can stand on its own and
make some contribution to the question of what future neurowarfare could
look like and why it should be considered one of the biggest dangers facing
humanity. When writing a book, many debts are incurred. Several people
have contacted me and sent me relevant information for which I am grateful.
The book grew out of conversations and communications I had with many
informed individuals. In particular, I would like to thank Robert Bunker for
taking the time to explain his ideas of future warfare to me at a conference.
I want to thank Jürgen Altmann with whom I had an interesting discussion
on directed energy weapons at a conference dinner, which stimulated my
interest and determination in writing this book. I am very grateful to Larry
Valero and Mark Gorman, my former colleagues at the University of Texas
at El Paso, for their generous and continuing support. I want to thank Robert
Thompson for his support of my research activities and in particular for
keeping my teaching load low, without which I simply would not have been
able to manage this project. I am also indebted to the rest of my department
at East Carolina University, which has been extraordinarily supportive of
vviiiiii
viii Acknowledgements
their new junior colleague. I am grateful to Jai Galliott, who has encouraged
me to work on the topic of military neuroscience and who has been a very
helpful collaborator in other publishing projects. I want to thank my editor
at Ashgate, Brenda Sharp, for so speedily accepting my book proposal and
for working with me on the manuscript. My special thanks go to my wife
Svetlana for frequently discussing the rather scary topic of mind control and
for constantly motivating me to complete the book at last.
iixx
Abbreviations
ADS Active Denial System
AI Artificial Intelligence
BBB Blood- Brain Barrier
BBI Brain- to- Brain Interface
BCI Brain- Computer Interface
BW Biological Weapons
BWC Biological (and Toxin Weapons) Convention
BWE Brainwave Entrainment
CNS Central Nervous System
CW Chemical Weapons
CWC Chemical Weapons Convention
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DBS Deep Brain Stimulation
DE Directed Energy
DEW Directed Energy Weapons
DHS US Department of Homeland Security
DIA US Defense Intelligence Agency
DoD US Department of Defense
DoJ US Department of Justice
ECT Electroconvulsive Therapy
EEG Electroencephalography
ELF Extremely Low Frequency
EMF Electromagnetic Fields
EMP Electromagnetic Pulse
ENMOD Environmental Modification
ESP Extrasensory Perception
FAS Federation of American Scientists
fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
HERF High Energy Radio Frequency
HUMINT Human Intelligence
IARPA US Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity
IC Intelligence Community
IRB Institutional Review Board
IW Information Warfare
JNLWP US Joint Non- Lethal Weapons Program
LIC Low- Intensity Conflict
