Table Of ContentMilitary Laser Technology and Systems
David H. Titterton
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the U.S. Library of Congress.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN-13: 978-1-60807-778-6
© 2015 Artech House
685 Canton Street
Norwood, MA 02062
Contents
Preface xix
Part I Fundamentals 1
CHAPTER 1
Military Laser Technology and Systems 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Laser Development 6
1.3 Laser Systems Development 8
1.4 Aim of the Book 10
1.5 Organisation of the Book 10
1.5.1 Part I: Lasers and Fundamentals 11
1.5.2 Part II: Military Laser Systems 11
1.5.3 Part III: Safe Use, Education, and Training 12
References 12
Selected Bibliography 14
CHAPTER 2
Laser Action, Components and Definition of Terms 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Laser Classification 16
2.3 Laser Action and Stimulated Emission 17
2.3.1 Gain Medium, Pumping and Population Inversion 19
2.3.2 Laser Transitions 22
2.3.3 Laser Modes 23
2.3.4 Near- and Far-Field Beam Profiles 24
2.4 Oscillators and Amplifiers 25
2.5 Beam Generation and Its Control 29
2.5.1 Q-Switching 30
2.5.2 Cavity Dumping 33
2.5.3 Mode Locking 33
2.5.4 Gain Switching 34
2.5.5 Other Techniques 34
2.6 Other Laser Components 35
2.6.1 Mirrors 35
2.6.2 Coatings 35
2.6.3 Windows 36
2.7 Direct and Indirect Wavelength Generation 36
2.7.1 Optical Parametric Processes 40
2.7.2 Optical Parametric Oscillators 40
2.7.3 Phase Matching 42
2.7.4 Quasi Phase Matching 44
2.7.5 Harmonic Generation 45
2.7.6 Raman Conversion 46
2.7.7 Sum and Difference Frequency Mixing 47
2.7.8 Super-Continuum Generation 47
2.8 Performance Characteristic Terms and Parameters 47
2.8.1 Beam Quality and Divergence 48
2.8.2 Power 50
2.8.3 Radiant Intensity 50
2.8.4 Efficiency 50
2.8.5 Time to Full Brightness 51
2.8.6 Pulse Length 52
2.8.7 Pulse-Repetition Frequency 52
2.8.8 Duty Cycle and Duty Factor 52
2.8.9 Quantum Defect 53
2.8.10 Coherency and Speckle 54
2.8.11 Beam Stability 55
2.8.12 Line Width 55
2.8.13 Tuneability and Diversity 55
2.8.14 Polarisation 56
2.9 Summary 56
Selected Bibliography 57
CHAPTER 3
Laser Devices for Military Applications 59
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Military Laser-System Considerations 60
3.3 Laser-System Specifications and Requirements Definition 62
3.4 Solid-State Lasers 64
3.4.1 Future Challenges for Solid-State Devices 67
3.4.2 Rod Lasers 68
3.4.3 Slab Lasers 69
3.4.4 Slod Lasers 72
3.4.5 Plastic Lasers 73
3.4.6 Ceramic Lasers 75
3.5 Fibre Lasers 76
3.6 Disk Lasers 84
3.7 Vibronic Lasers 86
3.8 Liquid-Phase Lasers 88
3.9 Gas-Phase Lasers 92
3.9.1 Carbon-Dioxide Lasers 95
3.9.2 Chemical Lasers 96
3.9.3 Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser 99
3.9.4 Explosively Pumped Iodine 101
3.9.5 Alkali Lasers 101
3.10 Semiconductor Lasers 102
3.10.1 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers 107
3.10.2 Quantum-Cascade Laser 110
3.10.3 Interband-Cascade Lasers 113
3.10.4 W Structures 114
3.10.5 Strain-Engineered Diodes 114
3.10.6 Optically Pumped Semiconductor-Disk Lasers 116
3.11 Free-Electron Laser 118
3.12 Cryogenic Lasers 120
3.13 Cannon Lasers 121
3.14 Super-Continuum Lasers 123
3.14.1 Super-Continuum Generation Using Photonic-Crystal Fibre
and Planar Waveguides 124
3.14.2 Filament Ultraviolet Generation 124
3.15 Waveguide Lasers 126
3.16 Laser Performance Summary 128
3.17 Summary 128
Selected Bibliography 131
CHAPTER 4
Beam-Director Technology 135
4.1 Introduction 135
4.2 Design Considerations for Beam Directors 137
4.3 Generic Beam-Director/Pointer System for Directed-Energy Systems 139
4.3.1 Gimbal 141
4.3.2 Gimbal Functions 141
4.3.3 Blind Arcs (Blockages) 142
4.3.4 Optical-Train Design 142
4.4 Threat-Alerting System 143
4.5 Target-Tracking Subsystem 144
4.5.1 Target-Tracking Algorithms 146
4.5.2 Aim-Point Refinement Techniques 147
4.6 Pointing Element 147
4.7 Target Sightline Stabilisation 148
4.8 System Processor 149
4.8.1 Built-In Test and Boresighting Functions 151
4.9 Other Functions 152
4.9.1 Beam Control 152
4.9.2 Battle-Damage Assessment 153
4.10 Video Processor 154
4.11 Power Supply 155
4.12 Environmental Cover 155
4.13 Laser-Integration Requirements 157
4.14 Generic Beam-Director System for Laser-Based Sensing Systems 158
4.15 Advanced Beam-Steering Techniques 159
4.16 Summary 161
Selected Bibliography 163
CHAPTER 5
Laser-Beam Propagation 165
5.1 Introduction 165
5.2 The Earth’s Atmosphere 166
5.3 Beam-Attenuation Mechanisms 166
5.3.1 Absorption 167
5.3.2 Scattering 167
5.3.3 Extinction 169
5.4 Atmospheric Transmission 169
5.4.1 Weather 171
5.4.2 Humidity 171
5.4.3 Haze, Fog, Cloud and Rain 172
5.4.4 Summary of Transmission Effects on Beam Propagation 173
5.5 Models for Prediction of Transmission 174
5.5.1 Lowtran Model 175
5.5.2 Modtran Model 175
5.5.3 Fascode (Laser) Model 176
5.6 Turbulence 176
5.6.1 Turbulence Mitigation (Aperture Averaging) 180
5.6.2 Turbulence Mitigation (Adaptive Optics) 181
5.6.3 Turbulence Mitigation (Lucky Imaging) 182
5.6.4 Wind Effects 183
5.6.5 Summary of Turbulence and Wind Effects 184
5.7 Thermal Blooming 184
5.8 Ionisation 188
5.9 Nonlinear Propagation (Filaments) 188
5.10 Beam Propagation Through Wakes and Plumes 190
5.10.1 Propagation Characteristics 191
5.10.2 Impact on Installed Performance 191
5.11 Aero-Optical Effects 192
5.11.1 Aero-Optical Effects Around a Laser-DIRCM Transmitter 193
5.12 Summary 193
Selected Bibliography 195
CHAPTER 6
Radiometry, Testing and Evaluation of Laser Systems 197
6.1 Introduction 197
6.2 Radiometry 198
6.2.1 Photometry 200
6.2.2 Candela and Luminous Intensity 202
6.2.3 Radiant Flux and Luminous Flux 202
6.2.4 Radiant Intensity and Luminous Intensity 203
6.2.5 Irradiance and Illuminance 203
6.2.6 Radiance and Luminance 203
6.2.7 Radiant Exitance and Luminous Exitance 204
6.2.8 Radiant Exposure and Luminous Exposure 204
6.2.9 Radiant Energy and Luminous Energy 205
6.2.10 Total Radiant Flux and Total Luminous Flux 205
6.2.11 Radiance Temperature and Colour Temperature 205
6.3 System Considerations for Testing and Evaluation 206
6.3.1 Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) 208
6.3.2 Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E) 209
6.3.3 Technology Readiness Levels 209
6.4 Approaches to Testing and Evaluation 210
6.4.1 Introduction 210
6.4.2 Test and Evaluation Strategy 211
6.4.3 Test Design 212
6.4.4 Test Plan 212
6.4.5 Flight Trials 215
6.4.6 Documentation and Compliance 215
6.4.7 Simulation and Mathematical Modelling 215
6.4.8 Scale of Testing 216
6.4.9 Technology Insertion 217
6.4.10 Test Equipment 218
6.4.11 Laboratory Testing 222
6.4.12 Range and Field Trials 224
6.4.13 Platform Trials 226
6.5 Summary 228
Selected Bibliography 229
Part II Military Systems 231
CHAPTER 7
Laser Directed-Energy-Weapon Systems 233
7.1 Introduction 233
7.2 Historical Development 234
7.3 Military Utility 237
7.4 Summary of Potential Applications 239
7.5 Benefits of Laser Technology for Novel Systems 240
7.6 Laser-Beam Target-Interaction Effects 242
7.7 In-Band Damage Route 242
7.8 Out-of-Band Damage Route 244
7.9 Target-Defeat Techniques and Effects 244
7.9.1 In-Band Defeat 244
7.9.2 Out-of-Band Defeat 245
7.10 Basic Laser-Requirement Characteristics of In-Band
Novel Weapon Systems 245
7.11 Basic Laser Characteristics for Out-of-Band Laser-Weapon Systems 247
7.12 Summary of Laser Requirements for Laser-Weapon Systems 248
7.13 Target Engagement 248
7.14 Laser-Weapon Subsystem Definition and Operation 250
7.15 Beam Control 253
7.16 Potential Laser Technology for an In-Band Novel Weapon System 254
7.16.1 Visible Band 254
7.16.2 Mid-Wave Infrared 254
7.16.3 Far-Infrared Waveband 254
7.17 Potential Laser Technology for an Out-of-Band Novel
Weapon System 254
7.18 Tactical High-Power Laser-Weapon Mass and Volume Estimates 255
7.19 Tactical Laser-Weapon-System Considerations 256
7.20 Beam-Director Technology 257
7.21 Laser-Integration Requirements 257
7.22 System Processor 258
7.23 Battle-Damage Indication and Assessment 258
7.24 Concept of Operation 259
7.25 Future Requirements 259
7.25.1 Out-of-Band Systems 259
7.25.2 In-Band Systems 261
7.26 Myths 261
7.27 Summary 262
Selected Bibliography 263
CHAPTER 8
Laser-Based Electro-Optical Countermeasures 265
8.1 Introduction 265
8.2 Military Utility 268
8.3 System Operation 269
8.4 Defeat Mechanism 270
8.5 Pros and Cons of Laser-Based Dazzle Systems 271
8.6 System-Configuration Options 272
8.7 Subsystem Description and Functions 273
8.8 Target Cue 274
8.9 Laser-Source Characteristics for Electro-Optical Countermeasure
(Dazzle) Systems 274
8.10 Summary of Laser-Source Requirements 275
8.10.1 Laser Source Options: Visible Band 275
8.10.2 Laser Source Options: Near-Infrared and Short-Wave
Infrared Band 276
8.10.3 Laser Source Options: Mid-Wave Infrared Band 277
8.10.4 Laser Source Options: Far-Infrared Band 277
8.11 Beam Director 278
8.12 Laser-Integration Requirements 278
8.13 System Processor 278
8.14 Target Tracking and Stabilisation 279
8.15 Future Requirements 280
8.16 Summary 281
Selected Bibliography 282
CHAPTER 9
Laser Directed-Infrared Countermeasures (Laser Jammers) 283
9.1 Introduction 283
9.2 Military Utility 286
9.3 Historical development 286
9.3.1 Jammer Operation and Development 286
9.3.2 Laser-Source Technology 287
9.3.3 Defeat Mechanism 288
9.3.4 Jam-to-Signal Ratio 290
9.3.5 Concept of Operation 290
9.3.6 Principal Directed-Infrared Countermeasure Subsystems 293
9.3.7 Threat-Warning Subsystem 293
9.3.8 Beam Director 294
9.3.9 Directed-Infrared Countermeasure Processor 295
9.3.10 Infrared-Laser Requirements 295
9.3.11 Candidate Laser Technologies 296
9.3.12 Laser Integration 296
9.4 Open- and Closed-Loop Infrared-Countermeasure Systems 297
9.4.1 Open-Loop Systems 297
9.4.2 Closed-Loop IRCM (CLIRCM) 299
9.5 Future Requirements 301
9.6 Summary 303
Selected Bibliography 304
CHAPTER 10
Laser Range Finders 305
10.1 Introduction 306
10.2 Historical Development 307
10.3 Military Utility 308
10.4 System Operation 308
10.5 Laser-Performance Requirements 310
10.6 Subsystem Description and Function 312
10.7 Single-Photon Range Finding and Surveillance 312
10.7.1 Introduction 312
10.7.2 System Operation 313
10.7.3 Subsystem Description and Function 314
10.7.4 Laser Requirements 315
10.8 Future Requirements 315
10.9 Summary 316
Selected Bibliography 317
CHAPTER 11
Laser-Based Targeting 319
11.1 Introduction 319
11.2 Laser Targeting: Burst Illumination/Active Imaging 320
11.2.1 Introduction 320
11.2.2 Historical Development 321
11.2.3 Military Utility 322
11.2.4 System Operation 322
11.2.5 Laser Performance Requirements 324
11.2.6 Subsystem Description and Function 324
11.2.7 Future Requirements 328
11.2.8 Summary 328
11.3 Active Spectral Imaging 329
11.3.1 Introduction 330
11.3.2 Military Utility 331
11.3.3 System Configuration 332
11.3.4 Laser Performance Requirements 332
11.3.5 Subsystem Description and Function 333
11.3.6 Future Requirements 334
11.3.7 Summary 334
Selected Bibliography 335
CHAPTER 12
Laser Designation, Guidance and Fuzing 337
12.1 Introduction 337
12.2 Laser Designation 339
12.2.1 Introduction 339
12.2.2 Historical Development 340
12.2.3 Military Utility 341
12.2.4 System Operation 342
12.2.5 Laser-Performance Requirements 344
12.2.6 Subsystem Description and Function- 344
12.2.7 Future Requirements 346
12.2.8 Summary 347
12.3 Laser Beam-Rider Guidance 347
12.3.1 Introduction 347
12.3.2 Historical Development 348
12.3.3 Military Utility 349
12.3.4 Mode of Operation 349
12.3.5 The Weapon System: Firing Post 350
12.3.6 Guidance-Beam Generation 351
12.3.7 Laser Characteristics 352
