Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture

147 Pages·2017·1.29 MB·English

FAO
615 AFQISUHAERCIUESLT AUNRDE ISSN 20
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This report looks into the issue of microplastics from the fisheries and le
aquaculture perspective. Based on existing scientific literature, a group of d
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experts assessed the potential impact of microplastics and related contaminants e
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on fish consumers’ health and the ecological implications for aquatic organisms. A workshop n
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was organized with invited experts (Rome, 5-8 December 2016) who complemented the published h
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information and carried out a risk profiling of microplastics in aquaculture and fishery products. ir
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Despite the large amount of scientific data available, there are still significant knowledge gaps, c
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in particular regarding impacts at fish population and community level, detailed data for a u
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proper risk assessment and implications of nanoplastics presence in the marine environment. e
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Nonetheless, measures should be taken at international, governmental and consumer c
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levels to undertake cost-effective ecological and seafood safety risk assessments on a
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micro- and nanoplastics and associated polymers, to reduce plastic use and d
encourage the use of alternative materials, recycling and the adoption im
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of sustainable practices in using plastics and managing lic
plastic pollution. a
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ISBN 978-92-5-109882-0 ISSN 2070-7010 d
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Catoni associati
Microplastics in fisheries FAO
FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
TECHNICAL
and aquaculture
PAPER
615
Status of knowledge on their occurrence and implications
for aquatic organisms and food safety
Amy Lusher
FAO Consultant
Plymouth, United Kingdom
Peter Hollman
FAO Consultant
Wageningen, The Netherlands
and
Jeremy Mendoza-Hill
FAO Consultant
Madrid, Spain
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 2017
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
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The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
views or policies of FAO.
ISBN 978-92-5-109882-0
© FAO, 2017
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iii
Preparation of this document
One of the recommendations of the GLOBAL OCEANS ACTION SUMMIT FOR
FOOD SECURITY AND BLUE GROWTH, 22 to 25 APRIL 2014 (http://www.
globaloceansactionsummit.com/) requested that the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO), The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) work together with the Group of
Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP1) to
improve the knowledge base on microplastics in the marine environment and provide
policy advice on this topic.
As a result, UNEP approached GESAMP, FAO and other partners with a proposal
to contribute to the global assessment on sources, fate and impacts of microplastics on
the marine environment and resources with funding provided by the Government of
Norway.
FAO was requested to contribute specifically on fisheries and aquaculture; the two
main concerns were to assess the potential impact of microplastics on consumers’
health and perception, and understand the potential consequences on fish productivity
as physiological processes are likely to be affected by microplastics (because of their
occurrence and of the presence of additives and contaminants contained in the plastic).
Samples collected so far and scientific literature increasingly and clearly show occurrence
of microplastics in fish and shellfish as well as in fisheries and aquaculture products. This
report is meant to contribute to take stock of the scientific knowledge available, provide
information on the most likely pathways in terms of sources, transport and distribution
in both marine food chains and seafood value chains, and provide a framework to assess
the risks that may (or not) affect commercial fish stocks and consumers. In addition,
the report looks into the current practices and limitations of microplastic sampling
techniques.
The report is based on scientific literature published in international journals, as well
as expert knowledge. Amy Lusher, Peter Hollman and Jeremy Mendoza-Hill produced
the first draft of the report, with the support of Natalie Welden. The draft was then
discussed by a group of invited experts during a workshop held in Rome from 5 to
8 December 2016. The experts reviewed the initial draft and provided additional sections
and references to produce an advanced draft that was submitted to reviewers.
It is to be noted that given the high and rapid production of literature, taking stock
of current knowledge on microplastics is challenging. Therefore, this report needs to be
considered as a work in progress and might require periodic updates; however, in the
time being, the publication will contribute to raise awareness and outreach to fisheries
and aquaculture operators, scientists and policy makers to sensitize them to the issue of
microplastics.
1 Joint IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/UNEP/UNDP Group of Experts
on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection. http://www.gesamp.org/
iv
Abstract
Plastic production has increased exponentially since the early 1950s and reached
322 million tonnes in 2015, this figure does not include synthetic fibres which accounted
for an additional 61 million tonnes in 2015. It is expected that production of plastics will
continue to increase in the foreseeable future and production levels are likely to double
by 2025. Inadequate management of plastic waste has led to increased contamination
of freshwater, estuarine and marine environments. It has been estimated that in
2010 between 4.8 million to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste entered the oceans.
Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gears (ALDFG) are considered the
main source of plastic waste by the fisheries and aquaculture sectors, but their relative
contribution is not well known at regional and global levels.
Microplastics are usually defined as plastic items which measure less than 5 mm
in their longest dimension, this definition includes also nanoplastics which are
particles less than 100 nanometres (nm) in their longest dimension. Plastic items may
be manufactured within this size range (primary micro- and nanoplastics) or result
from the degradation and fragmentation of larger plastic items (secondary micro- and
nanoplastics). Microplastics may enter aquatic environments through different pathways
and they have been reported in all environmental matrices (beaches, sediments, surface
waters and water column).
Ingestion of microplastics by aquatic organisms, including species of commercial
importance for fisheries and aquaculture, has been documented in laboratory and field
studies. In certain field studies it has been possible to source ingested microplastics to
fisheries and aquaculture activities.
Microplastics contain a mixture of chemicals added during manufacture, the so-called
additives, and efficiently sorb (adsorb or absorb) persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic
contaminants (PBTs) from the environment. The ingestion of microplastics by aquatic
organisms and the accumulation of PBTs have been central to the perceived hazard and
risk of microplastics in the marine environment.
Adverse effects of microplastics ingestion have only been observed in aquatic
organisms under laboratory conditions, usually at very high exposure concentrations
that exceed present environmental concentrations by several orders of magnitude. In
wild aquatic organisms microplastics have only been observed within the gastrointestinal
tract, usually in small numbers, and at present there is no evidence that microplastics
ingestion has negative effects on populations of wild and farmed aquatic organisms.
In humans the risk of microplastic ingestion is reduced by the removal of the
gastrointestinal tract in most species of seafood consumed. However, most species
of bivalves and several species of small fish are consumed whole, which may lead
to microplastic exposure. A worst case estimate of exposure to microplastics after
consumption of a portion of mussels (225 g) would lead to ingestion of 7 micrograms
(µg) of plastic, which would have a negligible effect (less than 0.1 percent of total dietary
intake) on chemical exposure to certain PBTs and plastic additives.
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Microplastic contamination of aquatic environments will continue to increase in the
foreseeable future and at present there are significant knowledge gaps on the occurrence
in aquatic environments and organisms of the smaller sized microplastics (less than
150 µm), and their possible effects on seafood safety. Currently there are no methods
available for the observation and quantification of nanoplastics in aquatic environments
and organisms.
Lusher, A.L.; Hollman, P.C.H.; Mendoza-Hill, J.J. 2017.
Microplastics in fisheries and aquaculture: status of knowledge on their occurrence and
implications for aquatic organisms and food safety.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 615. Rome, Italy.

vii
Contents
Preparation of this document iii
Abstract iv
Contributors x
Acknowledgements xi
Abbreviations and acronyms xiii
Executive summary xv
1. General introduction 1
1.1 Context 1
1.1.1 Fisheries and aquaculture production 1
1.1.2 Plastics and microplastics 3
1.2 Global trends 4
1.3 Purpose and target audience of the report 6
1.4 Structure and scope of the report 6
2. Plastics: production, utilization and waste 9
2.1 What are plastics? 9
2.2 Types 9
2.3 Plastic production 10
2.3.1 Fabrication processes 11
2.3.2 Production data 12
2.4 Use of plastics in fisheries and aquaculture 14
2.4.1 Use of plastics in fisheries 14
2.4.2 Use of plastics in aquaculture 17
2.5 Plastic waste and management 19
2.6 The marine litter problem 21
2.7 Contribution of fisheries and aquaculture to marine litter 22
2.7.1 Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gears 22
2.7.2 Plastic debris from aquaculture 24
3. Microplastics 25
3.1 Definitions 25
3.1.1 Primary and secondary microplastics 26
3.1.2 Primary and secondary nanoplastics 27
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3.2 Fisheries and aquaculture as a source of microplastics 27
3.2.1 Fishing gear contributing to microplastics in the field 27
3.2.2 Possible indirect pathways 28
3.3 Distribution of microplastics in the aquatic environment 29
3.3.1 Freshwater and estuarine environments 29
3.3.2 Marine environments 30
3.3.3 Relation of microplastics in aquatic environments with fisheries and 31
aquaculture
3.4 Chemical and biological interactions of microplastics in the 31
environment
3.4.1 Sorption and release of PBTs and additives by microplastics 34
3.4.2 Transfer of PBTs and additives from microplastics to marine 34
organisms
4. Interactions of microplastics with aquatic organisms 37
4.1 Mechanisms of interactions (uptake, ingestion) and impacts (physical 37
and chemical) of microplastics determined in experimental settings
4.2 Observations of biota interacting with microplastics in the 41
environment
4.2.1 Ingestion by commercially important species from field observations 41
4.2.2 Shellfish (bivalves and crustaceans) 42
4.2.3 Fishes 43
4.3 Ecological implications 44
4.3.1 Accumulation of microplastics through trophic transfer 45
4.3.2 Effects at the population and community levels 45
5. Microplastics in foods 47
5.1 Fish as food 47
5.1.1 Fish consumption 47
5.1.2 Benefits of seafood consumption 48
5.1.3 Balancing the risks and benefits 50
5.2 Analytical methods for microplastics in foods 50
5.3 Microplastics in bivalves 50
5.4 Microplastics in other invertebrates 51
5.5 Microplastics in finfish 52
5.6 Contaminants and additives associated with microplastics 53
5.6.1 Plastic additives 53
5.6.2 Plastic monomers and polymers 53
5.6.3 Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic compounds (PBTs) 53
5.6.4 Metals 53
5.6.5 Pathogens 53