Table Of ContentHUMAN FACTORS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 9
Series Editors:
Hans-Jörg Bullinger Peter G. Poison
FhG-IAO Institute of Cognitive Science
Stuttgart University of Colorado
FRG Boulder, Colorado, USA
Assistant Series Editors:
Klaus-Peter Fähnrich
Jürgen Ziegler
FhG-IAO, Stuttgart, FRG
NORTH-HOLLAND
AMSTERDAM · LONDON · NEW YORK · TOKYO
Methods and Tools
in User-Centred Design
for Information Technology
Edited by
MARGARET GALER,
SUSAN HARKER
HUSAT Research Institute
Loughborough, UK
JÜRGEN ZIEGLER
FhG-IAO
Stuttgart, Germany
1992
NORTH-HOLLAND
AMSTERDAM · LONDON · NEW YORK · TOKYO
NORTH-HOLLAND
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Methods and tools in user-centred design for information technology / edited by
Margaret Galer, Susan Harker, Jürgen Ziegler.
p. cm. - (Human factors in information technology ; 9)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-444-89301-6
1. System design. 2. User interfaces (Computer systems)
I. Galer, Margaret. II. Harker, Susan. III. Ziegler, Jürgen.
IV. Series
QA76.9.S88M44 1992
004.2'l'019-dc20 91-42359
CIP
ISBN: 0 444 89301 6
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V
Preface
At the beginning of the 80s European Human Factors dealt very little with
problems of information technology. Scientists from disciplines like psychology,
computer science, artificial intelligence or computer linguistics had to cross the
Atlantic to learn from American colleagues how to deal with the relationship
between the human being and information technology. Although they were leading
in numbers and had gained a high reputation in the past, European Human
Factors researchers had not yet established an area of research dealing with
Human Factors in Information Technology. On the other hand, our societies had
a growing need for practical results in the design and implementation of
information systems. From the European position, it did not seem appropriate to
simply transfer results from other parts of the world.
With the emergence of the ESPRIT programme the idea was brought up by several
peers of the area in Europe to start a consolidated effort between major applied
research groups and industry in Europe to improve this situation. The
Commission's attitude towards those plans was positive from the very beginning.
European IT industry gave the necessary support and five of the major European
IT companies (Bull, ICL, Olivetti, Philips, Siemens) agreed to form a joint
consortium together with Fraunhofer Society in Germany and the HUSAT Research
Group in Great Britain. The project was formed under the supervision of scientists
of worldwide reputation like H.-J. Bullinger and B. Shackel. It was decided that
it should be managed by a team consisting of D. Davies, R. Ilg, J. Ziegler and
myself. Later M. Galer replaced D. Davies who had to take on other
responsibilities. During the most intensive phases of the project the team was
made up of nearly 40 researchers.
During the five years of the project, several redefinitions and refinements of the
initial workplan were undertaken. This reflected the shift in the whole programme
towards more practical results. Nevertheless, the project was a big chance to
further develop theory in our field. In the beginning, the project was meant to be
an infrastructural project that also raised the level of awareness and knowledge in
Europe concerning Human Factors in Information Technology. During the course
of the project it became clear that we had to deliver certain practical "research
products". If I was asked today, nearly two years after the end of the project, what
are considered to be the most remarkable results I would mention the Human
Factors Toolset and the Dialogue Management tools developed in the project. They
have meanwhile, by means of spin-off companies, been successfully introduced into
the market.
Before the reader turns to the chapters of the book I would like to say some
words of thanks. The whole team deeply appreciated the Commission's positive
VI Preface
attitude and support for this project. Especially J. Roukens, A. Stajano and D.
Bouis deserve our thanks for their involvement and help. Moreover, we would like
to thank our project reviewers, N. Bevan, A. Bisseret, J. Damay, K.F. Kraiss, J.
Rasmussen and B. Stone who helped to keep us on track. In addition, we would
like to thank all the participating institutions and companies for making such a
coherent approach possible by sponsoring this activity. Last but not least I want
to express my gratitude to all the members of the team for their enthusiasm,
competence and commitment. It was a great honour and pleasure for me to serve
as project manager of the HUFIT project.
Klaus-Peter Fähnrich
HUFIT Project Manager
Vll
Acknowledgements
The editors gratefully acknowledge the many people and organisations who
contributed to the success of the ESPRIT Project 385 HUFIT - Human Factors in
Information Technology and to this book. In particular, they wish to
acknowledge the CEC officers responsible for the HUFIT project Jan Roukens,
Atillio Stayano and Didier Bouis; the project team members in the partner
companies ICL, Bull, Olivetti, Philips and Siemens and the design teams in those
companies; the project evaluators Nigel Bevan, Jeanne Damay, Bob Stone,
Andre Bisseret, Friedrich Kraiss and Jens Rasmussen; the project Steering
Committee Professor Hans-Jörg Bullinger, Professor Brian Shackel, Professor
Herman Bouma, Professor Francesco Novara, Mr Franco Raiteri, Dr Claus Benz,
Mr Najah Naffah and Mr Owen Evans; the Project Manager Klaus-Peter
Fähnrich; the other Technical Directors of the project Mr David Davies and Dipl.-
Ing Rolf Ilg (Margaret Galer and Jürgen Ziegler were also Technical Directors);
the other project technical adviser Professor Ken Eason (Susan Harker was also a
technical adviser); the project team members in the sub-contractor organisations
University College Cork, Universidade do Minho, Piraeus Graduate School of
Industrial Studies, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität; and the unfailing
support of the project assistants Julie Bowley and Petra Walderich. Special
thanks are due to Julie Bowley who prepared the manuscript.
IX
List of Contributors
Gordon Allison HUSAT Research Institute
Bernard Catterall The Elms, Elms Grove
Marc Dowd Loughborough
Ken Eason Leicestershire
Margaret Galer LEU 1RG
Susan Harker UK
Martin Maguire
Kathy Phillips
Bronwen Taylor
Claus Görner Fraunhofer-Institut für Arbeitswirtschaft und
Franz Koller Organisation (IAO)
Bernhard Trefz Nobelstraße 12
Paulus Vossen D-7000 Stuttgart
Jürgen Ziegler Germany
Frangois Jeffroy Corporate Software Ergonomics Unit
Isabelle Lambert Bull S.A.
7, Rue Ampere
91343 Massy Cedex
France
Tom Bösser Institut für Allgemeine & Angewandte
Elke-Maria Melchior Psychologie
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität
Spiekerhof 40/43
D-4400 Munster
Germany
Nadia Bertaggia Ing. C. Olivetti & Co. S.P.A.
Gianni Montagnini Via G. Jervis 77
Francesco Novara 10015 Ivrea
Oronzo Parlangeli Italy
X List of Contributors
Peter Haubner Siemens A.G.
ZPL1 QEG
Research Centre
Paul-Gossen-Straße 100
D-8520 Erlangen
Germany
Floris Van Nes Philips -Institute for Perception Research/IPO
P.O. Box 513
NL-5600 MB Eindhoven
The Netherlands
Simon Elder ICL
Phil Pettit Lovelace Road
Fred Russell Bracknell
Berkshire
RG12 4SN
U.K.
Maria Giannacourou Economic and Management Research
Lampros Laios Centre (KODE)
Nikos Marmaras University of Piraeus
40 Karaoli Dimitriou Str.
18532 Piraeus
Greece
Methods and Tools in User-Centred Design for Information Technology
M. Galer, S. Harker and J. Ziegler (Editors)
© 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland). All rights reserved.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Margaret Galer & Susan Harker
HUSAT Research Institute
The Elms, Elms Grove, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LEU 1RG, U.K.
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the background to the HUFIT project and why
user-centred design formed the focus for the project. The failure of IT
systems to match the high expectations placed upon them and the
need to institutionalise human factors expertise within the
development cycle are discussed. The research and development
activities to support the growth in the application of a user-centred
approach are related to an overall model of the design process which
provides a way of navigating through the material presented in the
following chapters.
1.1 The background to the HUFIT project
This book is about the development of human factors inputs to software
design. The aim of this activity is to create products which will more closely
match the tasks, needs and characteristics of users, and offer effective, usable and
flexible user interfaces. The research and development activities of the HUFIT -
Human Factors in Information Technology Project - were carried out within the
European Strategic Programme for Research and Development in Information
Technology (ESPRIT). The project was the focal point for ergonomics and
human factors in the Office Systems part of this programme. The project
brought together academic and industrial partners with the shared objective of
enhancing the quality of software design within the European Community.
From its inception the project recognised that a variety of activities would be
necessary to achieve the goal of improved software design and the following
chapters record and reflect this diversity. They illustrate the various ways in
which research in human computer interaction may be used to develop
knowledge, methods and tools which can be integrated into the development
activities of information technology (IT) supplier organisations. This involved
close collaboration between developers of information technology products and
research laboratories, both within companies and in academic institutions, in
order to produce the necessary combination of research, development and
application.
2 Chapter 1
In 1983, the proposal for the HUFIT project stated that "in the past computer
systems and high technology based products have been 'technology oriented',
that is they have provided a technological solution to a problem without due
considerations to the needs and aspirations of the end user". This technological
orientation only existed because the end users of the products were either
computer specialists or at the very least computer literate. As such they were
either motivated to use the products or forced to use them by the nature of their
jobs. The work carried out in HUFIT represented a response to changing
conditions. It was recognised that computer systems were impinging on a much
wider audience where the new users were not computer specialists, nor highly
motivated, nor necessarily able to cope with the difficulties of using computer
products designed to satisfy purely technological criteria. Evidence was building
up which indicated that the resulting mismatch between the system provisions
and the users' requirements was causing the information technology to fail to
realise its full potential or simply to be ignored by users who had the choice as to
whether they used the IT products or not. This view was supported by the
realities of the marketplace where products were failing because of non-use. In
turn suppliers were beginning to appreciate that specification of their products
should be based on the needs and requirements of intended users.
User related difficulties which lead to rejection or under-utilisation are
concerned with product and system usability and acceptability. This involves
both the provision of the specific functionality required by the users, and the ease
with which it can be understood and used. Designers must have access to
relevant and valid information about users and their tasks, they must be in a
position to create interfaces that users will find usable, and mechanisms must be
available which will enable suppliers to check that appropriate solutions have
been generated. The process of product implementation which lies in the hands
of the user organisation is also important. Suppliers must ensure that their
support mechanisms take account of the effects that products may have on the
nature of work and the quality of jobs and, if necessary, they must be able to
support the delivery of their products during implementation into the
organisation.
In the early 1980s there was already a considerable volume of work relating to
the human factors aspects of IT. The emphasis was on the extension of
knowledge through research being carried out in academic institutions and
company laboratories. The skills which were developed resided in the expertise
of the human factors researchers and practitioners. The principle form for
sharing knowledge was in the human factors community and the work is
exemplified by research on topics such as command language grammar (Moran
[1]), command paradigms (Carroll [2]), and the determinants of usability (Barnard
and Hammond [3]). The influence of these theoretical developments on the
design of IT products at the time was difficult to identify and they were clearly
difficult for designers to implement within the constraints of design activity.
1.2 The issues addressed by the HUFIT project
The HUFIT project was conceived as a way of establishing a firm basis for the
application of human factors within the development of generic office products.
