Metallurgy and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production

293 Pages·2011·24.502 MB·English

by  Robert Heidersbach

METALLURGY AND CORROSION
CONTROL IN OIL AND GAS
PRODUCTION
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WILEY SERIES IN CORROSION
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Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys · Edward Ghali
Metallurgy and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production · Robert Heidersbach

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METALLURGY AND CORROSION
CONTROL IN OIL AND GAS
PRODUCTION
ROBERT HEIDERSBACH
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION
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Copyright © 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Heidersbach, R. (Robert)
Metallurgy and corrosion control in oil and gas production / Robert Heidersbach.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-24848-5 (cloth)
1. Oil fields–Equipment and supplies. 2. Metallurgy. 3. Corrosion and anti-corrosives. I. Title.
TN871.5.H45 2011
622′.3382–dc22
2010025376
Printed in Singapore
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To Krista Heidersbach, my favorite corrosion engineer
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CONTENTS
Preface xiii
1 Introduction to Oilfi eld Metallurgy and Corrosion Control 1
Costs, 1
Safety, 2
Environmental Damage, 2
Corrosion Control, 3
References, 3
2 Chemistry of Corrosion 4
Electrochemistry of Corrosion, 4
Electrochemical Reactions, 4
Electrolyte Conductivity, 5
Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis, 5
Electrode Potentials and Current, 5
Corrosion Rate Expressions, 8
pH, 10
Passivity, 10
Potential-pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams, 11
Summary, 11
References, 12
3 Corrosive Environments 13
External Environments, 13
Atmospheric Corrosion, 14
Water as a Corrosive Environment, 15
Soils as Corrosive Environments, 16
Corrosion under Insulation, 17
Internal Environments, 18
Crude Oil, 19
Natural Gas, 19
Oxygen, 19
vii
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viii CONTENTS
CO, 20
2
H S, 22
2
Organic Acids, 27
Scale, 27
Microbially Infl uenced Corrosion (MIC), 28
Mercury, 31
Hydrates, 31
Fluid Flow Effects on Corrosion, 33
Summary, 33
References, 34
4 Materials 36
Metallurgy Fundamentals, 36
Crystal Structure, 36
Strengthening Methods, 37
Mechanical Properties, 38
Fracture, 42
Creep, 45
Thermal Expansion, 45
Forming Methods, 45
Wrought versus Cast Structures, 45
Welding, 46
Materials Specifi cations, 49
API, 49
AISI—The American Iron and Steel Institute, 49
ASTM International—formerly the American Society
for Testing and Materials, 49
ASME, 49
SAE International, 49
UNS, 50
NACE—The Corrosion Society, 50
Other Organizations, 50
Use of Materials Specifi cations, 50
Carbon Steels, Cast Irons, and Low-Alloy Steels, 51
Classifi cations of Carbon Steel, 52
Strengthening Methods for Carbon Steels, 53
Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels, 53
Quenched and Tempered (Q&T) Steels, 54
Carbon Equivalents and Weldability, 54
Hard Spots, 55
Cleanliness of Steel, 55
Cast Irons, 55
CRAs, 55
Iron-Nickel Alloys, 56
Stainless Steels, 56
Nickel-Based Alloys, 60
Cobalt-Based Alloys, 61
Titanium Alloys, 62
Copper Alloys, 63
Aluminum Alloys, 66
Additional Considerations with CRAs, 68
Polymers, Elastomers, and Composites, 70
References, 72
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CONTENTS ix
5 Forms of Corrosion 75
Introduction, 75
General Corrosion, 75
Galvanic Corrosion, 77
Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals, 77
Area Ratio, 78
Polarity Reversal, 83
Conductivity of the Electrolyte, 83
Control of Galvanic Corrosion, 83
Pitting Corrosion, 84
Occluded Cell Corrosion, 84
Pitting Corrosion Geometry and Stress Concentration, 85
Pitting Initiation, 85
Pitting Resistance Equivalent Numbers (PRENs), 86
Statistics, 86
Prevention of Pitting Corrosion, 86
Crevice Corrosion, 87
Alloy Selection, 88
Filiform Corrosion, 88
Intergranular Corrosion, 89
Stainless Steels, 89
Corrosion Parallel to Forming Directions, 90
Aluminum, 90
Other Alloys, 91
Dealloying, 91
Mechanism, 91
Selective Phase Attack, 91
Susceptible Alloys, 92
Control, 92
Erosion Corrosion, 92
Mechanism, 92
Velocity Effects, 93
Materials, 95
Cavitation, 95
Areas of Concern, 95
Control, 98
Environmentally Induced Cracking, 98
SCC, 99
HE and HS-Related Cracking, 101
2
Hydrogen Attack, 105
Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME), 105
Corrosion Fatigue, 106
Other Forms of Corrosion Important to Oilfi eld Operations, 107
Oxygen Attack, 107
Sweet Corrosion, 107
Sour Corrosion, 108
Mesa Corrosion, 108
Top-of-the-Line (TOL) Corrosion, 108
Wire Line Corrosion, 109
Additional Forms of Corrosion Found in Oil and
Gas Operations, 109
Additional Comments, 113
References, 114
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x CONTENTS
6 Corrosion Control 117
Protective Coatings, 117
Paint Components, 117
Coating Systems, 118
Corrosion Protection by Paint Films, 118
Desirable Properties of Protective Coating Systems, 119
Developments in Coatings Technology, 120
Useful Publications, 120
Surface Preparation, 120
Purposes of Various Coatings, 123
Generic Binder Classifi cations, 124
Coatings Suitable for Various Service
Environments or Applications, 126
Coatings Inspection, 126
Areas of Concern and Inspection Concentration, 131
Linings, Wraps, Greases, and Waxes, 133
Coatings Failures, 137
Metallic Coatings, 143
Water Treatment and Corrosion Inhibition, 146
Oil Production Techniques, 147
Water Analysis, 148
Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration, 148
Corrosion Inhibitors, 148
Cathodic Protection, 154
How Cathodic Protection Works, 155
Types of Cathodic Protection, 157
Cathodic Protection Criteria, 168
Inspection and Monitoring, 170
Cathodic Protection Design Procedures, 174
Additional Topics Related to Cathodic Protection, 177
Summary of Cathodic Protection, 180
Standards for Cathodic Protection, 180
References, 182
7 Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing 186
Inspection, 187
Visual Inspection (VI), 187
Penetrant Testing (PT), 188
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT), 188
Ultrasonic Inspection (UT), 189
Radiography (RT), 190
Eddy Current, 191
Positive Material Identifi cation (PMI), 192
Thermography, 192
Additional Remarks about Inspection, 193
Monitoring, 193
Monitoring Probes, 193
Mass-Loss Coupons and Probes, 194
Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes, 197
Electrochemical Corrosion Rate Monitoring Techniques, 197
Hydrogen Probes, 200
Sand Monitoring, 201
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CONTENTS xi
Fluid Analysis, 201
Bacterial Growth Monitoring, 203
Additional Comments on Monitoring, 204
Testing, 204
Hydrostatic Testing, 204
Laboratory and Field Trial Testing, 204
References, 207
8 Oilfi eld Equipment 209
Drilling and Exploration, 209
Wireline, 212
Coiled Tubing, 212
Wells and Wellhead Equipment, 213
History of Production, 214
Downhole Corrosive Environments, 214
Tubing, Casing, and Capillary Tubing, 220
Inhibitors for Tubing and Casing in Production Wells, 223
Internally Coated Tubing for Oilfi eld Wells, 226
Material and Corrosion Concerns with Artifi cial Lift Systems, 228
Wellheads, Christmas Trees, and Related Equipment, 231
Facilities and Surface Equipment, 233
Piping, 233
Storage Tanks, 236
Heat Exchangers, 238
Other Equipment, 241
Bolting and Fasteners, 241
Flares, 249
Corrosion under Insulation, 249
Pipelines and Flowlines, 249
Pipeline Problems and Failures, 252
Forms of Corrosion Important in Pipelines and Flowlines, 253
Repairs and Derating Due to Corrosion, 254
Casings for Road and Railway Crossings, 255
Pipeline Materials, 256
Hydrotesting, 257
External Corrosion, 257
Internal Corrosion, 260
Inspection and Condition Assessment, 262
References, 265
Index 270
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