Meta-principles in Luria's neuropsychology

11 Pages·8.751 MB·English

by  Luria A.R.

'-.'.
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6
SKOLEPSYKOLOGI
ARGANG 8 - NR. 6 - 1971
--~ META-PRINCIPLES IN LURIA'S NEURO-
PSYCHOLOGY
THE FUNCTIONAL SYSTEM: KEYSTONE
TO LURIA'S NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
DET FUNKTIONELLE SYSTEM: N"GLEBEGREBET
I LURIA'. NEUROPSYKOLOGI
ITPA OG DENS ROLLE SOM DIFFERENTIAL-
DIAGNOSTISK INSTRUMENT OG SOM
HJ~LPEMIDDEL VED DIAGNOSTISK
UNDERVISNING
EN UNDERS"GELSE AF STJERKT LIESE-
RETARDEREDES SOCIALE BAGGRUND
EN UNDERS"GELSE AF HJJELPEKLASSEELEVERS
OG HJ~LPEHOLDSELEVERS SOCIALE BAGGRUND
EN UNDERS"GELSE AF STOFFORBRUGET
BLANDT SKOLEELEVER
I HERSTEDERNES KOMMUNE
INTERVIEW·METODIK
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Meta-principles in Luria's
neuropsychology
INDHOLD
A. R. Luria: Meta-principles in Luria's neuropsychology
407
Douglas M. Bowden: The Functional System: Keystone to Luria's The following is a tight summary of A. R. Luria's
Neuropsychology 409 approach to the basic fields of psychology in which
he has been involved for decades.
Douglas M. Bowden: Det funktionelle system: Neglebegrebet i
Luria's neuropsykologi ((oversat af Otto Sloth) 418
John Rasmussen: ITPA og dens rolle som differentialdiagnostisk
instrument og som hjrelpemiddel ved diagnostisk undervis-
ning. Beskrivelse og forsog pa vurdering .
424
1. There are higher cortical (or psychological) functions
Emil Kruuse: En undersegelse af stzerkt lreseretarderedes sociale specific to human being and not existing in animals. These
baggrund .
448 specifically human psychologically processes (or functions)
Emil Kruuse: En undersegelse af hjrelpeklasseelevers og hjrelpe- derive from social sources, i. e. tool-using social behavior
holdselevers sociale baggrund ' . 455 of man.
Emil Kruuse: En undersegelse af stofforbruget blandt skole-
elever i Herstedernes kommune . 2.The most specificfeature of these higher processes is that
462
Ulla Kaad: Interview-metodik .................. , . 469 they are tool- or means-using processes, Animals do not
use means, their behavior is not mediated by means, tools or
Doris E. Nason: Talent, Opportunity and Career by Torsten
signs, it is all immidiate, natural behavior, whereas human
Husen. An analysis and review .
478
behavior is always mediated (tool- or means-using) or
Omtale af ny litteratur:
indirect by structure, social by origin and voluntary (or
Svar til Svend Ellehammer Andersen (Kurt Kristensen) ....
488 conscious)by the modes of work.
Referat af det 31.faglige made pa »Nyborg Strand« 7. september
- 9. september 1971:
3.This indirect, means-using behavior is mediated via speech
Paneloplasg med emnet: Forebygge - kan og skal vi det? .. 489 - this most important system of tools or signs in human
Vagn Christensen & A. P. Serensen; Forebyggende perspek- history. Language (or speech) has not only its semantic
tiver i det predagogiske, medicinske og sociale samarbejde "
493 function: function of categorization of impressions, but its
Niels Lerqen. Bisgaard: FOl'ebyggende aspekter i opdragelsen
pragmatic or regulatory (or controlling) functions as well.
med relation til de psedagogtske og socialpredagogiske
By using language man overcomes the direct influences of
uddannelser .
495
environment, and his behavior becomesno more field-linked,
Finn Rasborg: Samarbejde mellem lserer og elev i 70'erne "
497
but is goal- or plan-linked.
4. The indirect, tool (sign)using behavior starts a new form
of cortical work: human cortex isnomore a complex ofwork
of different zones, organized by influences of the »cen- The Functional System:
trencephalic system« (or natural drives): it becomes a
Keystone to Luria's
historically organized, plastic functional system where
language plays a decisive organizing role. That is why Neuropsychology*
»higher cortical functions of man« have to be evaluated as
functional systems of cortical zones, linked by the leading
role of language as a decisive means of behavior. By Douglas M. Bowden, M.D.,
Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington,
5. The disorganization of the brain functions following local Seattle, Washington U.S.A.
brain lesions is in no way a partial deficit (destruction of a
spheral local function) and no more a total lowering of the A. R. Luria, Professor of Psychology of Moscow State
general brain activity. It results in a disorganisation of University and chief of the diagnostic research section at the
functional brain systems, each time resulting from a defect Burdenko Institute of neurosurgery is, to the West, un-
of a basic [actor (according the locus of the lesion) _ doubtedly the best known figure in contemporary Soviet
bringing a series of primary symptoms and resulting in a psychology.The present paper is intended topoint out certain
series of secondary symptoms or functional (vsystemic«) themes which have run through his'work over the past 45
results. years, to outline the theoretical framework from which his
research has envolved, and to describe a few typical experi-
6. The basic goal of neuropsychology is neither a pure ments which will give an impression of the kind of evidence
description, nor a direct reduction to a physiological issue, he has accumulated to support his theories.
but a careful psychological qualification of the symptom Professor Luria has always been primarily interested in
(i. e. singling out the underlying factor, and then - a functions peculiar to man. From the 1920'sto the present he
description of systemic results of the destruction or elimina- has defended again and again the legitimacy of experiments
tion of this factor); that is the real way to the neuro- designed to objectify »higher mental processes«. Also, from
psychological diagnostics of brain injury. the beginning of his career his work has reflected a concern
for the major significanceof socialforcesin the determination
That is very shortly my credo. of human personality and thought processes.
(Formulated in a letter to prof. Douglas Bowden, dated *This paper was originally presented at the Convention of the
[ebr. 20. 1971,Souhanovo, near Moscow, sign. A. R. Luria). American Psychological Association, New York, 1966.It is not necess-
arily an overview af Professor Luria's research and theory as he
would present it. It is, rather, a synopsis by one who has felt his own
Terminology:
thinking very much influenced by contact with Professor Luria and
Centrencephalic system Penfields term for a hypothesized central
his writings. The author expresses his thanks to Professor Luria for
structure of neurones in the brain stem which is conceived of as the
his very generous consultation and assistance in gathering the lite-
anatomical basis for the coherent unity of mental processes. In many
rature on which the paper is based and sincerely hopes that in
respects, the centrencephalic system would appear to be identical with
emphasizing those themes which appear most essential to himself, he
the reticular activating system.
has not distored the original concepts or experimental intentions of
408 (from Hinsie & Campbell: Psychiatric Dictionary, N. Y. 1970). Professor Luria. 409
The word »function« is ubiquitous to Luria's writings. He With this conception of human functions in mind, one can
uses the term with variable degrees of specificity. Functions define four major postulates to which Luria has adhered
in the most general sense include such phenomena as speech, throughout most of his career. The first is that the cerebral
reading, and calculation; in a somewhat less general sense, component of any functional system results from the inter-
functions include abstraction, selective attention, memori- action of a constellation of cerebral areas. Thus, a function
zation, etc. In individual experiments, function usually refers is localizable in the sense that damage to any one of the
to the fulfillment of a specific task, such as pressing a rubber areas involved destroys the functional system responsible for
bulb to an auditory signal, building a house from blocks, or it. Secondly, a given function may be performed in different
narrating a story from memory. ways, i. e., by different functional systems depending upon
the individual and the circumstances in which he finds him-
Different functions are performed by different »functional
self. Thus a function is not localizable in the sense that if
systems«, In the 1920's, Luria used functional system as a
damage to a structure destroys the functional system on
psychophysiological term which referred to interactions
which it is based another system can be developed to carry
between affect, motor activity, and thought processes.
out the same function. Thirdly, the most powerful adaptive
Characteristics of a functional system were inferred from
functions which man possesses, such as abstraction, com-
vegetative, somatic, and speech reactions which were
putation, and speech itself, depend upon functional systems
recorded as the subject performed a task. Hypotheses were
which are acquired rather than innate. The fourth major
stated regarding the psychologicalinteraction of,for instance,
postulate is that the most important determinat of functional
massive affect and regulatory speech processes. At that time
systems in man is the organization of the social environment.
he waslittle inclined tospeculation about the brain structures
involved in such interactions.
Challenges to these postulates have given rise to hundreds
In the mid-1930's his interests broadened to include the of experiments over the past 45years. It would be impossible
organization of functional systems within the brain. to summarize all of Luria's ,work in a few pages. The in-
Through his study of thousands of patients with focal brain tention here is rather to give some impression of the variety
lesions, the term »functional system« has come to have a of his attempts to test his theory by citing several types of
definite neuroanatomical connotation. It would be incorrect, experiment and indicating how they relate to his major
however, to consider this the entire essence of the concept. theses.
In its present form, the concept of a functional system The following is an example of how the cortical con-
involves two components: a cerebral component and an stellations .hypothesis has been studied. Luria found that
environmental component. The function »reading« for word blocking was characteristic of aphasias associated with
instance, cannot occur where either a book or a human brain lesions in several different areas. He did not conclude from
is lacking. Thus, the concept of a functional system for this, however, that the areas were »equipotential for word
reading is incomprehensible unless reading material, i. e., finding.« He analyzed the syndromes further and found that
the environmental component, is included in the definition. with lesions of the »superior premotor area« the blocking
The book is as essential a part of the functional system for was associated with a general inability to perform repetitive
410 reading as the occipital cortex. motor patterns smoothly. For instance, patients with superior 411
premotor lesions were incapable of reproducing a rythm can be connected in a variety of ways to perform the same
(IIIII II III .... ) tapped out by the examiner. function. Indeed, a major tenet of Luria's theory is that one
With lesions af the temporo-parieto-occipita] region, on principal difference between the human and lower animals
the other hand, motor patterns were intact, but the patients is the plasticity of brain function, the ease with which
had difficulty comprehending certain simple grammatical temporary connections are made and broken by means of
constructions. For instance, instructed to »draw a circle the second signal system.
under a square,« they might draw a circle and, under it, The idea that speech might be restored by reorganizing
a square; they tended to follow the sequence of operations the speech system to comprise a different constellation of
conveyed by the sequence of words in the instruction rather cortical areas was the theoretical basis of a large scale re-
than the sequence of operations defined by its grammatical habilitation program for aphasics undertaken by Luria dur-
structure. The associateddeficit suggested that word blocking ing and after World War II (1).It was found, for instance,
in this syndrome might be due to a loss of semantic and that patients with oral apraxias could regain control of the
grammatic associations through which words would or- oral apparatus required for speech by observing the move-
dinarily be retrieved. ments of the tongue and lips in a mirror as they attempted
Finally, patients with lesions in the left inferotemporal to talk. In such cases, the mirror besame an environmental
area often showed a very severe form of word blocking. In component of the reorganized functional system,
this syndrome non-verbal motor patterns were unaffected Other observations from an entirely different area have
and comprehension of grammatical statements was intact. also been adduced as evidence that the same function may
The lesion also.prevented the patient from reading or writing be accomplished by different functional systems, viz., from
unfamiliar words which had to be sounded-out, although studies of cognitive development in the child. In a very early
common words which would be recognized directly from study of counting, Luria noted that children of different ages
visual memory, or familiar words such as a signature, which counted in different ways. If they were instructed to count
he could write »in one motion« presented no problem. Again blocks arranged in a !lOW, no difference was detected. If the
the combination of symptoms with the inferotemporal lesion blocks were arranged to form a:cross,however, the younger
differed markedly from that seen with either of the previous children counted the block at the junction of the horizontal
two lesions. This Luria interpreted as evidence that a dif- and vertical columns twice. On the basis of this and numer-
ferent link in the functional system for word finding had ous similar experiments, Luria concluded that, at the earlier
been disrupted. age,the culturally determined functional system for counting
From a practical point of view, this approach has yielded had not yet developed; counting was done by a more primi-
diagnostic tools which Luria has used clinically since the tive form-bound functional system, so that the outcome was
early 1940's.In a theoretical sense, the evidence it yields has highly dependent upon environmental circumstances. At a
been taken to support the concept that functional systems later ageamore complexfunctional system developed,which
involve constellations of cortical areas, damage to anyone allowed counting of a more abstract nature.
of which can disrupt the corresponding function. A third experiment showed not only that different func-
The thesis that the same function can be performed in tional systems can fulfill the same function, but also demon-
412 different ways implies that the different areas of the brain strated how such differences developed during learning and 413
the kinds of influence they could have on subsequent functional systems he wished to study in identical twins. In
performance (2).Five sets of identical twins participated in a other twin studies he has attempted to distinguish between
series of sessions with building blocks. One twin from each functional systems which are closely related to genotype
pair learned to reproduce model housesin which the building from ones which are not.
blocks were exposed to view. The other learned to reproduce One such study involved over 140sets of twins who were
the same houses, but the models he had to work from were subjected to a number of different tasks (3).He found that
covered with paper, so that the ways in which blocks were in a simple visual recognition task, the variation in per-
stacked to obtain the overall form of the house were not formance was considerably less between identical twins than
exposed to view. After 10 weeks of training with different between fraternal twins. For a complex memorization task,
models, the two groups showed equal facility at reproducing on the other hand, the variation between identical twins
houses. There were marked differences, however, in their was as great as between fraternal twins. From this he
comprehension of grammatical statements regarding spatial concluded that the functional system responsible for per-
relationships, and 18 months later, they showed great diffe- formance in the recognition task was highly related to
rences in their ability to reconstruct from memory the models genotype, whereas that responsible for memorization was
which they had produced during tre training sessions. For related to past experience. Since past experience, was as
instance, the twins who had worked from models in which heterogeneous between identical twins as between fraternal
the individual blocks were hidden had less difficulty twins, variation in performance scores for the latter was
responding appropriately to the instruction, »draw a circle taken to reflect a predominance of experiential over genetic
under a square« and were considerably better at reconstruct- influences.
ing old models from memory.
Luria's fourth major postulate, that the most important
In order to reproduce a model in which the relationships determinant of functional systems in man is the organization
between individual bricks were hidden from view, they had of his social environment follows directly from the postulate
first to analyze the general form of the structure and then that such systems are acquired rather than innate. One of
construct the form from blocks at hand. In the process a the studies which illustrates this principle most strikingly
functional system developed which had a different environ- involved a pair of identical twins, who, at age 5, showed
mental component than that evolved by the children who marked retardation in speech development (4). At the be-
had been shown the relationships between individual blocks. ginning of the study, the children shared a vocabulary of
The functional system they developed was more abstract less than 80 real words, and their speech reflected almost
and more powerful in that it rendered comprehension of no grammatical structure. They were enrolled in separate
related verbal statements and memory for spatial relations kindergartens and trained by adults who maximally
more effective. encouraged their use of speech in practical situations; one
Some of Luria's most fascinating studies have been of the twins received formal instruction in grammar as well.
designed to test the thesis that man's most effective functions For both twins, grammatical speech developed rapidly.
for dealing with his environment are acquired rather than They came to perform equally as well in most situations.
innate. In the experiment just described, he sought to They both developed narrative speech and verbal control
414 eliminate the genetic factor by elaborating the different over their behavior. In addition they developed constructive 415
References
play and the ability to draw from memory. These functions
had been all but absent 11months earlier. (1) Luria, A. R. (1963): Restoration of Function after Brain Injury,
In summary, the major finding was that identical twins trans. Haigh, B., (Macmillan, New York) (Eng),
living in a closesymbiotic relationship and in an atmosphere (2) Luria, A. R. & Mirenova, A. N. (1936): Eksperimental'noe razvitie
vospriiatiia metodom diferentsirovannogo obucheniia odnoiait-
of adult indifference did not develop grammatical speech,
sevykh bliznetsov, sbornik Nevrologiia i Genetika (Development
the most basic of human functions. When they were
of perception in identical twins with different training methods,
separated and exposed to. adults who encouraged or Neurology and Genetics (ed? pub?) (Russ).
demanded verbalization of perceptions, desires, intentions, (3) Luria, A. R. (1936): K voprosu 0 geneticheskom amalize psikholo-
etc., they rapidly developed speech. Luria concluded that gicheskikh funktsii v svyazi sikh razvitiem, Problemy Nervooi
Fiziologii i Povedeniia, sbornik., posvyasbchonnyi Prof. 1. S.
grammatical language and constructive thought processes,
Beritashvili (Tblisi, Tekhnika da Shrorna) pp. 361-367.
even of a rudimentary nature do not develop in the absence
(Genetic analysis of the development of psychological functions,
of social necessity or interaction with other humans who in Problems in Neural Physiology and Behavior, proceedings of
have already acquired language. a symposium hold in honor of 1. S. Beritashvili, issued under
Anyone familiar with the vast range of Prof. Luria's auspices of Georgian branch of Academy of Sciences of the USSR
(Tbilisi, Tekhnika da Shroma) pp 361-367) (Russ).
research interests will readily recognize that a number of
(4) Luria, A.R. & Yodovich, F. la. (1959): Speech and the Development
large areas have been omitted from this discussion.His well-
of Mental processes in the Child (Staples Press, London) (Eng),
informed interest in psychoanalysis during the 1920's (5,6), (Sproget og barnets udvikling, Munksgaard 1971).
and his own attempts at that time to analyze the influence of (5) Luria, A. R. (1923): Psikhoanaliz v Svete Osnovnykh Tendentsii
hidden affect on speech and thought processes:(7);his cross- Sovremennoi Psikhologii, 50 pp (Krasnyi Pechatnik, Kazan).
(Psychoanalysis in Light of Basic Tendencies of Modern Psycho-
cultural studies of speech in children from rural and urban
logy, 50 pp (Red Press, Kazan)) (Russ).
environments (8); and his studies of speech and thought in
(6) Luria, A. R. (1926): Die moderne russische Physiologie und die
children with severe motor and mental handicaps (9) Psychoanalyse, Internationale Zeitschrijt filr Psychoanalyse, Bd.
represent decades of research which we can only mention XII, Heft 1, pp. 40-53 Ger).
here in passing. (7) Luria, A. R. (1932): The Nature of Human Conflicts (Liveright,
New York) trans. by W. Horsley Gantt from Russian edition
The major aim of this paper has been to point out several
which appeared in 1930) (Eng).
themes which are basic to virtually all of Prof. Luria's work.
(8) Luria, A. R. (1930): Rechevye reaksii rebenka i sotsial'naia sreda,
Each passing year sees an increasing number of translations Rech' i InteHekt Derevenskogo, Gorodskogo, i Besprizornogo
of this man's important scientific contributions from Russian Rebenka, T. II, red. Luria, A. R. (Gosudarstvennoe Isdatel'stvo
into languages more accessible to his western colleagues. RSFSR) pp 7-37.
(Speech reactions of the child as a function of social environment,
It is a unique and fascinating body of theory and research
in Speech and Intellect in Children from Rural, Urban, and
which well merits the rapidly growing attention it is
Homeless Backgrounds, vol. II, ed. by Luria, A. R. (Gos. Isd.,
receiving from scholars in a broad spectrum offields, includ- Moscow) pp, 7-37» (Russ).
ing, not least of all, educational psychology. (9) Luria, A. R. (ed) (1956 & 1958): Problemy Vysshai Nervnoi
Beiatel'neati Normal'nogo i Anomal'nogo Rebenka, T. I & II,
(Izd. Akad. Ped. Mask., Moskva).
(Problems of Higher Nervous Activity in the Normal and
Abnormal Child, trans. (Pergamon, London) (Eng), 417
416
Det funktionelle system:
fererer det ssedvanligvts tiI udf0relsen af et bestemt arbejde, sorn
Nsglebegrebet i Luria's fx at trykke pa 'engummibold som svar pa et auditivt signal, at bygge
et hus af klodser eller at fortcelle en historie udenad.
neuropsykologi* Forskellige funktioner udfares af forskellige »funktionelle systerner«.
I 1920'erne brugte Luria dette udtryk som en psykofysiologisk be-
tegnelse, der refererede til interaktioner mellem affekt, motorisk ak-
tivitet og tankieprocesser. Et funktionelt systems karakteristika blev
Af Douglas M. Bowden, M. D.,
udledt af de vegetative, somatiske og verbale reaktioner, som kunne
Department of Psychiatry, University of Washington,
registreres under fors0gSperSonens udferelse af et arbejde. Der blev
Seattle, Washington U.S.A. eksempelvis fremsat hypoteser vedr. den psykologiske interaktion
mellem stserk affekt og regulerende talevirksomhed. Pa den tid var
A. R. Luria, professor i psykologi ved Moskvas Statsuniversi~et og han kun i ringe grad tilbajeltg til at gere overvejelsor vedr, de hjerne-
strukturer, der var involveret i sadanne interaktioner.
chef for den diagnostiske forskningsafdeling ved Burdenko Instituttet
for Neurokirurgi er for den vestlige verden utvivlsomt den bedst I midten af 30'erne udvidedes Lurias interesser til ogsa at omfatte
kendte skikkelse , i moderne Sovjet-psykologt.. Forma°1et med denne organisationen af de funktionelle systemer i selve hjernen. Gennem
artikel er at fremhseve visse temaer, som gennem 45 ar har prseget hans studier af tusindvis af patienter med fokale hjernelcesioner har
hans arbejde, at skitsere den teoretiske begrebsram:ne, ~vorfra ha~ udtrykket »funktionelt system« efterhandsn faet et klart neuro-ana-
forskning har udviklet sig, samt at beskrive nogle fa typiske ekspen- tomisk indhold, men det vine dog ikke vsere korrekt at betragte dette
menter, som kan give et indtryk af arten af den bevismsengde, han som dcekkende hele indholdet af begrebet.
har samlet som stette for sine teorier. . I sin nuvcerende form indeholder begrebet »funktionelt system- to
Professor Luria har altid ferst og fremmest interesseret .SI~ for komponenter: den cerebrale og den milj0mcessige. Fx kan funktionen
de funktioner, der specielt vedrerer mennesker. Fra 19~Oo.g :111d=ag: »Isesning- ikke foreligge, medmindre der findes savel en bog som en
har han atter og atter gjort sig til talsmand for det legitime 1at menneskelig hjerne. Begrebet: lsesning som et funktionelt system er
fere eksperimenter med det formal at objektivere de sakaldte »hejere saledes uforstaeligt, hvis ikke lcesematerialet, dvs. miljafnktoren,
mentale processer«. Ligeledes har hans arbejde fra farste ~cerd a~ medtages i definitionen. Bogen er en Iige sa vcesentlig del af det
spejlet en steerk interesse for de sociale krcefters betydning so funktionelle system som den occipitale del af cortex.
determinanter for den menneskelige personlighed og for tankepro-
Pa baggrund af denne opfattelse af menneskets funktioner kan vi
cesserne. b art nu fremscette de fire vigtigste postulater, som Luria har holdt sig til
Ordet »funktion« optrseder overalt i Luria's vserker og ruges sn i st0rstedelen af sin karriere. Det f0rste er, at den cerebrale kompo-
i snsevrere snart i videre betydning, I sin mest generell~ for:n om- nent af et hvilket som heIst funktionelt system er et resultat af en
fatter »funk,tioner« fcenomener som tale, Isesni.ng og regnmg', 1 noge.t interaktion mellem visse cerebrale omrader Dvs. at en funktion kan
mindre generel betydning bruges ordet om abstrakti~n, selektiv 10kaIiseres i den forstand, at beskadigelse af et af de involverede om-
opmserksomhed, udenadsleeren etc. I individuelle ekspenmenter re- rader vil edelseggs det funktioneUe system i sin helhed. Det andet
er, at en given funktion kan udfaros pa forskellige mader, dvs. af
*) Denne fremstilling blev oprindelig forelagt for The conventio~~f forskellige funktionelle systemer, afhsengtgj af individet og dets om-
the American Psychological Association, New.Y?rk 1966..Den ert ~
givelser. En funktion er saledes ikke lokaliserbar i den forstand, at
nadvendigvis et overblik over Professor Luna s forskning og eori,
et andet funktionelt system kan udvikles til at udfere funktionen,
saledes som han selv ville frem;stille dete=er: ::ce~~ ~~v~~~~r~
foretaget af en, som har felt sin egen n dt kk r hvis det farste skulle blive adelagt. For det tredie: menneskets vigtig-
kontakten med Professor Luria og hans vserker, Fo~atteren '; ~y .e ste tilpasningsfunktioner, som fx abstraktion, aritmetisk beregning
. tak mlighed til Professor Luria for hans rundhandede radgivning
og selve talen, afhsengar af funktioneUe systemer, som er erhvervede,
~~nhjcef; m~d at samle den Iitteratur, hvorpa artiklen er bygyet'hog
haber oprigtigt at han ved at fremhceve de temaer, han. ~ev .~r snarere end medfadto, Det fjerde hovedpostulat er, at den vigtigste
fundet mest v~sentlige, ikke har fo~ansk.et Professor Luria s origi- determinant i menneskets funktionelle systemer er organiseringen
418 nale begreber eller eksperimentelle intentioner. af den socials omverden. 419
Afprevningen af disse postulater har givet anledning ti1hundredvis interaktioner af corticale omrader, og at en beskadigelse af et enkelt
af eksperimenter i de forlebne 45 ar. Det ville veere umuligt at op- af disse omrader kan nedbryde den tilsvarende funktion.
summere Lurias arbejde pa nogle fa sider. Hensigten her er snarere Ad 2). Pastanden om, at den samme funktion kan udferes pa for-
at give et indtrykaf variationsbredden i hans forseg pa at teste sin skellige mader, implicerer, at de forskellige omrader i hjernen kan
teori, og dette vil blive gjort ved at omtale flere typer af eksperimen- forbindes pa flere forskellige mader ved udforelsen af samme funk-
ter og anfere, hvorledes de star i relation til hans hovedteser. tion. Det indgar som et hovedprincip i Lurias teori, at en af de vre-
Ad 1)hypotesen om den corticale interaktion: Luria fandt, at ord- sentlige forskelle mellem mennesker og laverestaende dyr er plastici-
blokeringer var karakteristiske for afasier, del' hidrerte fra Isesioner teten i hjernens funktion, dvs. den Iethed, hvormed mere kortvarige
i flere forskellige omrader, Men herudfra drog han imidlertid ikke forbindelser kan dannes og afbrydes ved hjeelp af »det andet signal-
den slutning, at de pagseldende omrader i lige hej grad var afgerende system«.
for funktionen at finde ord, Han analyserede-syndromerne yderligere Den opfattelse, at talefunktionen kan retableres ved en reorgani-
og fandt, at ved Ieesioner af »det overordnede prse-motoriske omrade- sering af talesystemet, saledes at andre konstellationer af hjerne-
var blokeringen forbundet med en generel mangel mht. glat forleben- omrader tages i brug, var det teoretiske grundlag for et storstilet
de udfarelse af en motorisk aktivitet, 80mskulle gentages, Fx var pa- rehabiliteringsprogram for afatikere, som Luria startede efter den
tienter med sadanne lsesioner ude af stand til at reproducere en rytme, anden verdenskrig. Man fandt fx, at patienter med oral apraxi kunne
som undersegeren bankede. genvinde kontrollen med taleapparatet ved at studere tunge- og leebe-
Men ved Ieesioner i temporal-parietal-occipital omradet var de bevregelserne i et spejl, mens de prevede at tale. Idette tilfzelde blev
motoriske manstre intakte, men patienterne havde besveer med at spejlet en miljafaktor i det reorganiserede funktionelle system.
opfatte visse simple grammatiske konstruktioner. Hvis man fx bad Andre observationer fra et helt andet omrade viser ogsa, at den
dem tegne »en cirkel under en firkant« ville de ofte tegne en cirkel samme funktion kan udfares af forskellige funktionelle systemer; det
farst og derefter en firkant nedenunder; de havde tilbejelighed til at drejer sig her om studiet af den kognitive udvikling hos barnet. I et
lade rsekkefelgen af handlinger falge rsekkefelgen af ord, snarere end tidligt foretaget forseg vedr. trellefunktionen bernserkede Luria, at
den reekkefelge, som den grammatiske struktur angav. Dette forhold barn pa forskellige alderstrin havde forskellige frerngangsmader. Hvis
kunne tyde pa, at ordblokeringen i dette syndrom skyldtes et tab af bernene fik som opgave at tselle blokke, del' var opstillet i en rsekke,
de semantiske og grammatiske associationer, som under normale om- viste der sig ingen forskel. Men hvis blokkene var ordnet iet kors
stsendigheder kunne fere til identifikation af ordene. talte de mindre barn blokken i skseringspunktet to gange. Pa basis af
Endelig udviste patienter med lsesioner i det venstre inferotempo- dette og mange lignende eksperimenter sluttede Luria, at pa det
rale omrade ofte en meget alvorlig form for ordblokering, Idette tidlige aldersniveau var det kulturelt bestemte funktionelle system
syndrom var ikke-verbale motoriske manstre ubererte, og forstaelsen for at teelle endnu ikke udviklet; trellefunktionen var bundet af en
af grammatiske forhold var intakt. Lsesionen forhindrede patienten primitiv formopfattelse, sa at resultatet var stzerkt afheengigt af ydre
i at lsese eller skrive useedvanlige ord, som derfor matte siges i sta- omstsendigheder. I en senere alder udvikledes et mere kompliceret
velser, mens del' ikke var problemer med almindelige ord, 80m funktionelt system, som tillod en mere abstrakt form for tsellen.
kunne genkendes umiddelbart ved hjeelp af visuel hukommelse,eller Ad 3). Et tredie eksperiment viste ikke alene, at forskellige funk-
med velkendte ord som fx en underskrift, der kunne skrives »som tionelle systemer kan udfare samme funktion, men tillige, hvorledes
i en beveegelse«.Vi ser her igen, at kombinationen af symptomer ved sadanne forskelle udvikledes ved indlsering, og hvorledes de kunne
denne Iresion var afgjort forskellig fra de to tidligere omtalte tilfrelde. influere pa den senere adfserd, Fern par enreggede tvillmger deltog
Dette fortolkede Luria 80m et bevis pii, at det var en anden forbin- i en serie forsag med byggeklodser. Den ene tvilling i'hvert par leerte
delse i det funktionelle system for ordgenkendelse, der var blevet af- at bygge efter modelhuse, i hvilke byggeklodserne var synlige, Den
brudt. anden Iserte at bygge de samme huse, men her var modellerne over-
Fra et praktisk synspunkt har denne forskning betydet, at Luria trukket med papir, saledes at det ikke fremgik synligt, pa hvilken
har faet et diagnostisk middel, som han har brugt klinisk siden be- made klodserne var arrangeret, Efter 10ugers trsening med forskellige
gyndelsen af 1940'erne. I teoretisk henseende kan disse synspunkter modeller var de to grupper Iige dygtige, Der viste sig imidlertid af-
420 tages til indtsegt for den opfattelse, at funktionelle systemer involverer gerende forskelle i deres forstaelse af grammatiske fremstillinger 421