Men? Positioning Masculinities in Alexandra Township

286 Pages·2017·2.76 MB·English

by  Toni Pyke

“Reformed” Men?
Positioning Masculinities in Alexandra Township

Antonella (Toni) Pyke

A thesis submitted to the School of International Development at the
University of East Anglia in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.

University of East Anglia
School of International Development

May 2017

Word count: 81,279

© This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who
consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author
and that use of any information derived there from must be in accordance
with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must
include full attribution.
ABSTRACT
Despite the growing body of literature focusing on men and masculinity/ies, there is
limited material that adequately explores the everyday experiences and specificities
of being and living as a man in diverse social and cultural contexts. Furthermore,
inadequate consideration is given to the unique ways in which men redefine,
renegotiate and reconstruct their masculinities and multiple identities over time, or
the challenges/limitations that they may experience during this process. More
importantly, there is a lack of critical attention given to men’s agentic roles in
supporting a vision for gender equality and social change. Considering men’s lived
realities, subjectivities, the ways in which they redefine and reconstruct multiple
masculinities and social identities across time and diverse social and cultural
environments, has significant implications for studying and working with men in
international human development contexts.
In this thesis, I consider these dimensions within the context of township living.
Through daily interactions with men in Alexandra township in Johannesburg, South
Africa, I explore their subjective interpretations of what it means to be a man in this
context and the ways in which change, specifically political, social and economic
change, is experienced through their daily lives, their sense of self and their social
relationships. I demonstrate that as men reflect on change, they struggle to
renegotiate the parameters of their masculinities within a patriarchal context that is
steadfast in its expectations of traditional gendered norms, alongside an absence of
alternative masculine blueprints for transforming masculinities.
Through self-reflection, peer group support and for some, access to gender-
transformative workshops, some men are actively engaging with the change agenda
and are exploring their lives and their future aspirations, and reconsidering what it
means to be a man in the context of Alexandra township.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
As I write these acknowledgements, I am reminded of the words of the late, great
Nelson Mandela: ‘there is no easy walk to freedom’. While incomparable to his own
‘road less travelled’, this thesis has been no easy walk. The journey to its
completion has taken me (along with my family and friends) on a lengthy adventure,
down twisting, winding paths, major highways and long plateaus. It has
accompanied me across four countries, spanning two continents and welcomed an
addition to our family, my ‘thesis child’, who is already nearly six years old!
Any significant undertaking is only possible with the support, encouragement, input,
patience, sweat and tears of many individuals that one encounters along the way.
I begin by thanking my ‘boss’ Dr. Colm Regan, without who there may never have
been a walk. I am indebted to him for his consistent encouragement, inspiration and
‘gentle’ motivation to press on. The words ‘just do it’ (from the Nike logo) forever
imprinted on my brain! I also thank the Board of 80:20 Educating and Acting for a
Better World for the financial jump-start to the PhD process.
Without the enduring confidence in my ability and unwavering patience and support
of my supervisor Professor Janet Seeley, I could never have completed the walk.
Janet, deep gratitude for your incredible faith in me, for the positive feedback and
the ‘push’ to the finish line.
I also thank my second supervisor Dr. Colette Harris, who opened her home in
Norwich for the 9 months I was based there, and for the many informative chats
over the years in Kampala and Dublin. Special thanks to Dr. Catherine Locke, who
was brought on board at a critical moment in the process, and who repositioned the
thesis when it had become derailed. And to Professor Laura Camfield, for her
contact and support at UEA and in the critical, final moments of submission.
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I am writing these acknowledgements, while isolated in the annex of a friend’s
house. Other friends are collecting my children from school so that I have the
concentrated, uninterrupted space to write. Outside of this time, the Irish Embassy
in Kampala organised office space where I could escape a 5-year old’s post-school
interrogations. Special mention therefore goes to Donal Cronin, Susan Fraser,
Sarah and Mark Ryniak, Frederique and Mats Ståhle, Joyce Rugwiza, James Okoth
and Sam Sematimba. I thank Dr. Sophie Bremner, Tony Meade and Dr. Giulia
Greco for their support with the critical editing and formatting demands. I also thank
my sister Jane, for solving my practical dilemma with the physical submission of the
thesis.
To my parents, John and Mary, I thank you wholeheartedly for the sacrifices that
you have both made over the many years so that I could continue with my academic
endeavours, even when at times it seemed impossible.
Most especially, I dedicate this work to the future of the two special young men in
my life, Adam and Connor. My wish is that they can live in a world that encourages
them, respects them for their differences and allows them to be the men they
choose to be.
And of course, very special thanks goes to my husband Frank, who has singularly
had to tolerate my high ‘highs’ and lower ‘lows’ over the past 6 and a half years. And
not forgetting the economic sacrifices of a self-funded project!
Lastly, I thank the many great men of Alexandra township that I had the greatest
pleasure to meet and spend time with over the period of the research. Men, who
shared their lives and helped me to understand what it means to be a man in a
‘man’s world’. And to Sonke and ADAPT for their continued support and interest in
the research.
‘Alex’ will always have a special place in my heart.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………..………….………………….….i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS …………………………………………………………………...….…...ii

TABLE OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………….viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ......................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 RATIONALE FOR A STUDY ON TOWNSHIP MASCULINITIES ................................................ 1
1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND GUIDING QUESTIONS ..................................................................... 7
1.4 OUTLINE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS................................................................ 8
CHAPTER 2 CONCEPTUALISING MASCULINITIES IN TRANSITION............................ 12
2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 12
2.2 WHY A FOCUS ON ‘MEN’ - A CONTEMPORARY ‘CRISIS’? ................................................ 14
2.3 TOWARDS CONCEPTUALISING MASCULINITY/IES .......................................................... 21
2.3.1 Masculinity as embodied .................................................................................... 22
2.3.2 Masculinity/ies as hegemonic and multiple ........................................................ 25
2.3.3 Contextualising masculinity/ies in South Africa .................................................. 29
2.3.4 Adapting understandings of hegemonic masculinity .......................................... 32
2.4 DEFINING MARKERS OF MASCULINITY ......................................................................... 36
2.5 THE CHALLENGE TO CHANGE ..................................................................................... 39
2.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 44
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................. 47
3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 47
3.2 OUTLINING THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................... 47
3.2.1 Methodological foundation and justification ....................................................... 47
3.2.2 Gathering the data – choice of research location .............................................. 50
3.2.3 Accessing and gathering the data - research methods...................................... 54
3.2.4 Seeking ‘men of Alex’ – locating the research participants ............................... 68
3.3 ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING THE DATA ................................................................. 71
3.4 ETHICS .................................................................................................................... 74
3.5 REFLECTING ON METHODOLOGY IN RESEARCHING URBAN SUBALTERN MEN .................. 77
3.5.1 Reflexivity, flexibility and a qualitative research design ..................................... 77
3.5.2 Reflecting on methods ....................................................................................... 84
3.6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 4 CONTEXTUALISING THE RESEARCH LOCATION ................................... 89
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 89
4.2 SOUTH AFRICA – A HUMAN DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE ........................................... 90
4.3 EARLY IMPRESSIONS OF AFRICA ............................................................................... 94
4.4 ENSHRINING OPPRESSION ...................................................................................... 101
4.5 MIGRATING MASCULINITIES ..................................................................................... 103
4.5.1 Migration to the mines ...................................................................................... 103
4.5.2 A world of men – violence and hegemonic masculinity in the mines ............... 105
4.5.3 Migration and masculinity ................................................................................. 108
4.5.4 An evolving urban culture aligned to the struggle ............................................ 109
4.6 RESISTING OPPRESSION – ‘BLACK’ AGENCY ............................................................. 110
4.7 ALEXANDRA TOWNSHIP – THE ‘URBAN PROMISED LAND’ ........................................... 115
4.7.1 Alexandra township – an early history ............................................................. 117

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4.8 CONSTRUCTING TOWNSHIP MASCULINITIES ............................................................. 123
4.8.1 The urban warrior ............................................................................................. 125
4.9 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 129
CHAPTER 5 MEN OF ALEX – A PROFILE ..................................................................... 132
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 132
5.2 ELEVEN MEN OF ALEX ............................................................................................ 133
5.2.1 Boipelo ............................................................................................................. 133
5.2.2 Kabelo .............................................................................................................. 134
5.2.3 Abel .................................................................................................................. 136
5.2.4 Elijah ................................................................................................................. 137
5.2.5 Teboho ............................................................................................................. 139
5.2.6 Tihokomela ....................................................................................................... 140
5.2.7 Aaron ................................................................................................................ 142
5.2.8 James ............................................................................................................... 143
5.2.9 Latsego ............................................................................................................. 144
5.2.10 John .................................................................................................................. 146
5.2.11 Paul .................................................................................................................. 147
5.3 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 148
CHAPTER 6 REFLECTING ON THE PAST IN THE PRESENT ...................................... 150
6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 150
6.2 REFLECTIONS OF ALEXANDRA ................................................................................. 151
6.2.1 A researcher’s initial perceptions ..................................................................... 151
6.2.2 Reflecting on Alexandra by men who live(d) there .......................................... 153
6.2.3 Reflecting on the past, contemplating the future .............................................. 161
6.3 THE TOWNSHIP STRUGGLE AND (RE)DEFINING MASCULINE IDENTITIES ........................ 165
6.4 KEEPING THE PAST ALIVE – PERCEPTIONS OF ZULUNESS .......................................... 175
6.5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 180
CHAPTER 7 EXPLORING SUBJECTIVITIES OF MANHOOD ........................................ 182
7.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 182
7.2 NAVIGATING CONTEMPORARY MASCULINITIES IN ALEXANDRA .................................... 182
7.2.1 Constructing the contemporary urban warrior .................................................. 185
7.2.2 Interpreting the warrior image through markers of strength and pain .............. 188
7.3 MARKERS OF RESPECTABILITY ................................................................................ 192
7.3.1 Man as protector .............................................................................................. 192
7.3.2 Man as provider................................................................................................ 195
7.3.3 Providing for lobola........................................................................................... 199
7.3.4 Providing for damages ..................................................................................... 204
7.3.5 Father as a marker of respectable manhood ................................................... 206
7.4 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 211
CHAPTER 8 ‘PAUSING’ MASCULINITIES ...................................................................... 213
8.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 213
8.2 THE STRUGGLE TO RENEGOTIATE THE PARAMETERS OF MASCULINITY ....................... 214
8.2.1 Envisioning change .......................................................................................... 214
8.2.2 Transitional struggles ....................................................................................... 219
8.3 RENEGOTIATING TRADITION IN CONTEMPORARY ALEXANDRA .................................... 222
8.4 JOURNEYING TO THE ‘REAL SELF’ – REFLECTING ON BEING A DIFFERENT MAN ............ 225
8.4.1 A moment of pause in one man’s journey of self-reflection ............................. 226
8.4.2 Choosing to be a ‘different man’ ...................................................................... 228
8.5 MASCULINITIES IN TRANSITION ................................................................................ 237
8.6 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 239

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CHAPTER 9 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................................... 240
9.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 240
9.2 THE STRUGGLE TO REFORM MASCULINITIES IN ALEXANDRA TOWNSHIP ...................... 241
9.3 REVISITING THE PAUSE AND SAFE SPACES IN MEN’S TRANSFORMATIVE JOURNEYS ...... 243
9.4 REFLECTING ON METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 246
9.5 FINAL REMARKS ...................................................................................................... 251
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 253
APPENDIX A RESEARCH INFORMATION SHEET ..................................................................... 253
APPENDIX B PARTICIPANT INFORMED CONSENT FORM ......................................................... 258
APPENDIX C SAMPLE TABLE (LIFE HISTORIES) ..................................................................... 260
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 261

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Brown House ........................................................................................... 53
Figure 2 Partially completed identity box displaying the ‘inside’ ............................. 64
Figure 3 Partially completed identity box displaying the 'outside' ........................... 64
Figure 4 Developing a ‘vision board’ workshop ...................................................... 65
Figure 5 Map of Alexandra township .................................................................... 116
Figure 6 Alexandra in relation to Johannesburg and International Airport ............ 116
Figure 7 View of Alexandra township from Tsutsumani ........................................ 151
Figure 8 View of 'illegal' shacks along the Jukskei river ....................................... 155
Figure 9 Some of the many 'porta loos' throughout Alexandra ............................. 155
Figure 10 Street view of the 'Zolas' in Alexandra township ................................... 178

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
In this thesis I explore the everyday lives of a group of men living in Alexandra
township in Johannesburg, South Africa. Specifically, I investigate the ways in which
men (re)define and (re)negotiate change alongside traditional social and cultural
contexts, which remain embedded in patriarchal ideologies. I consider this by
mapping out those aspects of context that the men refer to as they reflect on their
masculine identities. Despite the growing body of literature on men, masculinities
and manhood, there is limited information that adequately maps out the ways in
which men define and live out their masculine identities within and beyond the
traditional social norms and ideals of what is a socially acceptable masculinity.
Masculinities can, and do, change. I therefore argue that in Alexandra township
there are multiple and diverse ways in which men (re)define, (re)negotiate and
(re)construct their masculine identities within various contexts and social situations,
which coexist and perhaps conflict with an accepted hegemonic township norm.
Also, critical for those men who are actively engaged in a process of renegotiating
the terms and conditions of their masculinity, is the absence of a clear strategy for
transforming masculinities or establishing what alternatives may look like.
1.2 Rationale for a study on township masculinities
Nearly 20 years ago, I worked on a community-based project aimed at empowering
Irish Traveller women in West County Dublin, in Ireland. During intensive training on
human rights and basic life skills, I became aware of the hazards of extracting a
socially, economically, politically and domestically marginalised and oppressed
group of women, raising their awareness – and their expectations – of their rights as
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
women in Irish society, then reinstating them into an unchanged environment. After
being directly challenged by the Traveller men in that community, I realised that
empowering women alone is unproductive without engaging men in their process of
change. I also realised that before I could do that, I needed to understand the wider
contextual realities of the lives of marginalised men and the ways in which they
subjectively interpret and manage their masculine space.
Exploring men’s issues is precarious terrain (Dowd 2010). I was reminded of this
during the field research in 2012, where I was invited to a meeting of the South
African branch of an international women’s organisation to outline my research.
During my presentation, I was reproached by one of the women in attendance who
claimed that by focusing on men, I was undermining the feminist agenda and
overshadowing the voices of women who had fought so hard to be heard. This, she
declared, would reinforce the realities of male patriarchy and privilege and create a
space in which men, rather than women, were viewed as victims and, as a
consequence, already scarce funding would be diverted towards a male agenda.
There may indeed be some validity in concerns about the shift in attention and
funding towards a programme of focusing on men (Pini and Pease 2013). In the last
decade, there has been a growing trend in international human development policy,
programming and practice of ‘including’ men in working towards women’s
empowerment and human rights. The UNWOMEN ‘HeforShe’ campaign is one
prominent example of this. The increased attention to men can also be seen within
academia and in both mass and social media, which are exploding with opinions,
definitions and debates about men, masculinities and manhood, their vulnerabilities,
emotional contributions (or lack thereof), behaviours, crises, propensity to violence
and so on (Whitehead and Barrett 2001).
However, men are only more recently being viewed as potentially part of the
solution in effecting gender equality. Yet, much of this heightened interest continues
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