Table Of ContentMEN IN TRANSITION
Theory and Therapy
MEN IN TRANSITION
Theory and Therapy
EDITED BY
KENNETH SOLOMON, M.D.
Adjunct Assistant Professor
Department of Psychiatry
University of Maryland School of Medicine
Associate Director for Education and Planning
Levindale Hebrew Geriatric Center and Hospital
Baltimore, Maryland
AND
NORMAN B. LEVY, M. D.
Professor of Psychiatry, Medicine, and Surgery
New York Medical College
Director, Liaison Psychiatry Division
Westchester County Medical Center
Valhalla, New York
PLENUM PRESS • NEW YORK AND LONDON
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Men in transition.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Men-Mental health. I. Solomon, Kenneth, 1947- . II. Levy, Norman
B., 1931- . [DNLM: 1. Identification-Psychology. 2. Men-Psychology. 3.
Psychoanalytic theory. 4. Psychotherapy. WM 460.5.M5 M266j
RC451.4.M45M46 1982 362.2'088041 82·15134
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-4213-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-4211-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4684-4211-3
©1982 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1982
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
Con tribu tors
Jack O. Balswick, Ph.D., Department of Pastoral and Family Ministries, Fuller The
ological Seminary, Pasadena, California
Teresa Bernardez, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan
Jacqueline Boles, Ph.D., Department of Sociology, Georgia State University, Atlanta,
Georgia
Alexandra Botwin, Ph. D., Department of Medical Psychology, University of Califor
nia, San Francisco, California
David A. Dosser, Jr., Ph.D., Department of Child Development and Family Relations,
College of Home Economics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota
Jerry M. Friedman, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, School
of Medicine, State University of New York at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
Marvin R. Goldfried, Ph.D., Department of Psychology, State University of New York
at Stony Brook, Stony Brook, New York
Robert E. Gould, M.D., Departments of Psychiatry and Obstetrics and Gynecology,
and Family Life Division, New York Medical College and Metropolitan Hospital
Center, New York City, New York
Richard L. Grant, M. D., Southeastern Colorado Family Guidance and Mental Health
Center, La Junta, Colorado, and Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado
Medical School, Denver, Colorado
Ellen Halle, M.M.H., Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Marylalld
Wolfgang Lederer, M.D., Departmellt of Psychiatry, Ulliversity of California, San
Frallcisco, California
Norman B. Levy, M.D., Psychiatric Liaison Service, Westchester Coullty Medical
Center, and Departments of Psychiatry, Medicine, alld Surgery, Valhalla, New
York
Robert A. Lewis, Ph.D., Department of Child Development and Family Studies, Pur
due University, West Lafayette, Indiana
v
VI C()i\:TRIBCTORS
John Money, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry, Phipps Clinic, /ohns Hopkins Univer
sity School of Medicille, Baltimore, Maryland
Carol C. Nadelson, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, Tufts-New Englalld Medical
Center, Boston, Massachusetts
Theodore Nadelson, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, Veteralls Administration Med
ical Center, and Department of Psychiatry, Tllfts University School of Medicine,
Boston, Massachusetts
Joseph L. Norton, Ph.D., Department of Counselhlg Psychology and Student Develop
ment, State University of New York, Albany, New York
James M. O'Neil, Ph.D., Department of Education, Ulliversity COllllse/ing Cellter and
Department of Counseling, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
Craig L. Roberts, Department of Sociology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
Minnesota
Kenneth Solomon, M.D., Levindale Hebrew Geriatric Center and Hospital; Depart
ment of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,
Maryland
Terry S. Stein, M.D., Department of Psychiatry, Colleges of Human Medicine and
Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lallsing, Michigan
Charlotte Tatro, Ph.D., Institute for Women, Miami, Florida
Martin R. Wong, Ph.D., Psychology Service, Veterans Admillistration Medical Cellter
Battle Creek, Michigan
Preface
Every year the few hundred members of the Committees, Task Forces, and
Councils of the American Psychiatric Association meet in Washington, D.C. to
conduct their business. They deliberate on a wide variety of issues encompassed
in the activities of each group. The psychiatrists constituting this mixed and
somewhat elite group include some of the better-known and promising people
in the profession, which makes the plenary session and cocktail party good
occasions to meet old friends and to make new ones.
Several years ago one of us (N.B.L.) attended this gathering as a member of
a soon-to-be defunct group, the Committee Liaison with the American College
of Physicians, and met Ann Chappell, a member of the Task Force on Women.
We were soon joined by Richard Grant. Ann impressed us with the work her
group was doing on issues surrounding the Women's Movement as it relates to
patients and the changing roles of the early 1970s. She was struck by the fact that
although some women had been very active in this endeavor, nobody in Ameri
can psychiatry was addressing issues which are arising in men as a result of the
changing roles of women in society. Dick and Norm were moved by what she
said and decided that they would make an effort to gather together people
interested in the issue of the changing roles of males in society at the oncoming
meeting of the American Psychiatric Association.
The initial occasion, in 1977, was a relatively informal Open Forum in which
a variety of interested people spoke, some quite articulately, about the effects of
the Women's Movement upon men. In subsequent years, sessions at the Ameri
can Psychiatric Association were organized and chaired by the editors of this
book. We were most impressed that this was a theme of active interest in a
significant group of people. As we became further involved with this subject, we
got to know a number of individuals who have actively addressed this theme.
They were sociologists, psychologists, social workers, and psychiatrists. We
thought that psychiatrists and other mental health workers, in particular,
needed to know about the research on and effects of changing masculine roles.
Unlike other medical specialties whose concepts of normality are relatively
fixed, mental health workers must adapt their concepts of illness and health to
vii
viii PRITAc.:E
custom and social change. The consequences of the Women's Movement's ex
amination of gender role stereotyping have produced profound social changes.
For example, in judging illness vs. health, when considering a man's wish to
stay at home and assume greater household responsibility in order to permit his
partner greater freedom for outside work, mental health workers should re
spond differently now from the way they did in the 1950s. Issues of normality or
abnormality in this area cannot be addressed with the certainties of the past.
Mental health workers need to be sensitive to and aware of the changing spec
trum of societal norms and its impact upon the people they see for diagnosis and
therapy. In addition, they need to monitor themselves so that they do not bring
outdated value systems into their work.
Two years ago we agreed to coedit a volume of the papers presented at past
American Psychiatric Association meetings and selected new ones on changing
masculine roles. Although this book is not the first volume with the general
theme of the changing roles of males in society, it is the first that is edited by
psychiatrists and has significant contributions by mental health workers. It is
also the first not written just upon what changes have, will, or should occur, but
also the pertinence of these changes for the practice of psychotherapy.
We were most pleased to find Plenum Publishing Corporation actively re
ceptive and extremely interested in publishing this book. We are particularly
thankful to Hilary Evans and Beth Kaufman of Plenum Publishing Corporation
for their support. In addition, we wish to express our gratitude to a number of
people who have helped in producing this volume. Special thanks goes to Ann
Chappell, whose actions and continued perseverence began the entire process
and whose continued support has been invaluable. Also, gratitude goes to the
contributors of this book, as they have struggled with the editors' comments,
critiques, demands, and deadlines and still wrote their chapters! We want to
thank our secretaries, Camille Damiano (for N.B.L.) and Joyce Hammock (for
K.5.) for their daily work on the manuscript, and Barbara Lazar, who indexed
this volume. Finally, there is special gratitude for those too many to mention
our fathers, sons, friends, lovers, wives, patients, colleagues, men and women
who have supported and critiqued this work and who have contributed to and
shared with the joys and pains of our growth as men.
KEN l\;FTII SOI.OMON
N()J{MAN B. LEVY
Contents
Introduction
JOHN MONEY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1 • Gender-Role Conflict and Strain in Men's Lives: Implications for
Psychiatrists, Psychologists, and Other Human-Service Providers
JAMES M. O'NEIL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Gender-Role Strain and Conflict in the 1970s: Effects on
Men................. ............................. 6
Recent Literature on Men: Common Themes of Gender-Role
Strain and Conflict. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Gender- and Sex-Role Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Gender-Role Conflict and Strain Explained ..... . . . . . . . . . . 11
Gender-Role Socialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Subordination of Feminine Values: Outcomes of the Masculine
Mystique and Value System. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 17
Fear of Femininity: The Cradle of Gender-Role Conflicts and
Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Comment and Criticism on the Fear of Femininity. . . . . . . . . 23
Patterns of Gender-Role Conflict and Strain Identified. . . . . 23
Patterns of Gender-Role Conflict and Strain: A Critique. . . . 36
Implications of Gender-Role Conflict for Psychiatrists,
Psychologists, and Other Human-Service Providers ... 36
Some Final Thoughts and Personal Disclosures ...... . . . . . 38
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 2 • The Masculine Gender Role: Description
KENNETH SOLOMON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Historical Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
ix
x
The Development of Gender Role ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Dimensions of the Masculine Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
The Effects of the Masculine Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chllpter 3 • PsycllOllIlIllytic-Oeuclopllll'ntlll Thl'ory lind thl' Ol'Uc/opllll'nt of
Mille Gender Identity: A R.l'uil'ZL'
MARTIN R. Wut\:c............................................ 77
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Sigmund Freud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Carl Gustav lung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Harry Stack Sullivan ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Margaret Mahler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Erik Erikson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Daniel Levinson and George Vaillant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
John Money and Robert Stoller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Recapitulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Chllpter 4 • Androgyny
JACQUEUt\:I: Bou-:s At\:[) CHARLOTTE TATRO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Androgyny: An Old Idea in a New Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100
Gender-Identity Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
Sex-Role Acquisition ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
Cognitive Development Theory: The Mind as Message .... 109
Sex-Role Acquisition and the Possibility of Androgyny. . . .. 112
Measuring Androgyny ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Sugar and Spice and Puppy-Dog Tails: The Components of
Masculinity and Femininity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 117
High Masculinity: Agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Androgyny: Boon or Bane? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121
Alternative Futures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 124
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
Chllpter 5 • Mille Inl'xpressiuenl'ss: Psyclwlogicnl lind Social Aspects
JACK O. BAlSWICK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
Evidence of Expressive Differences between Genders. . . . .. 135
Explanations of Male Inexpressiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136
Consequences of Male Inexpressiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
