Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition

502 Pages·2002·7.004 MB·English

by  William R. Hendee, E. Russell Ritenour(auth.)

MedicalImagingPhysics,FourthEdition,byWilliamR.HendeeandE.RussellRitenour
ISBN:0-471-38226-4 Copyright(cid:2)C 2002Wiley-Liss,Inc.
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MEDICAL
IMAGING PHYSICS
Fourth Edition
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MEDICAL
IMAGING PHYSICS
Fourth Edition
William R. Hendee, Ph.D.
Senior Associate Dean and Vice President
Dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences
Professor and Vice Chair of Radiology
Professor of Radiation Oncology, Biophysics, Bioethics
Medical College of Wisconsin
Professor of Biomedical Engineering
Marquette University
E. Russell Ritenour, Ph.D.
Professor and Chief of Radiology Physics, Medical School
Director of Graduate Studies in Biophysical Sciences and Medical
Physics, Graduate School
University of Minnesota
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
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Ad hoc, ad loc
and quid pro quo
so little time
so much to know.
Jeremy Hillary Boob, Ph.D.
The Nowhere Man in the Yellow Submarine
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CONTENTS IN BRIEF
PREFACE xv 19 ULTRASOUNDWAVES 303
PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION xvii 20 ULTRASOUNDTRANSDUCERS 317
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 21 ULTRASOUNDINSTRUMENTATION 331
1 IMAGINGINMEDICINE 1 22 DOPPLEREFFECT 343
23 FUNDAMENTALSOFMAGNETICRESONANCE 355
2 STRUCTUREOFMATTER 11
24 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING
3 RADIOACTIVEDECAY 27
ANDSPECTROSCOPY 367
4 INTERACTIONSOFRADIATION 45
25 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING:
5 PRODUCTIONOFXRAYS 69 INSTRUMENTATION,BIOEFFECTS,AND
SITEPLANNING 389
6 RADIATIONQUANTITYANDQUALITY 91
26 EXPERIMENTALRADIOBIOLOGY 403
7 INTERACTIONOFXANDγ RAYSINTHEBODY 117
27 HUMANRADIOBIOLOGY 413
8 RADIATIONDETECTORSFORQUANTITATIVE
MEASUREMENT 127 28 PROTECTIONFROMEXTERNALSOURCES
OFRADIATION 435
9 ACCUMULATIONANDANALYSIS
OFNUCLEARDATA 143 29 PROTECTIONFROMINTERNALSOURCES
OFRADIATION 455
10 COMPUTERSANDIMAGENETWORKING 161
30 FUTUREDEVELOPMENTSINMEDICALIMAGING 467
11 PROBABILITYANDSTATISTICS 179
APPENDIXI REVIEWOFMATHEMATICS 477
12 INSTRUMENTATIONFORNUCLEARIMAGING 197
APPENDIXII FOURIERTRANSFORM 483
13 RADIOGRAPHY 217
APPENDIXIII MULTIPLESANDPREFIXES 485
14 FLUOROSCOPY 235
APPENDIXIV MASSESINATOMICMASSUNITSFORNEUTRAL
15 COMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 251 ATOMSOFSTABLENUCLIDESANDAFEWUNSTABLE
16 INFLUENCESONIMAGEQUALITY 265 NUCLIDES 487
17 ANALYTICDESCRIPTIONOFIMAGEQUALITY 281 ANSWERSTOSELECTEDPROBLEMS 491
18 VISUALPERCEPTION 289 INDEX 495
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CONTENTS
PREFACE xv DECAYEQUATIONSANDHALF-LIFE 35
PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION xvii TRANSIENTEQUILIBRIUM 37
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix ARTIFICIALPRODUCTIONOFRADIONUCLIDES 39
MATHEMATICS OF NUCLIDE PRODUCTION BY NEUTRON
BOMBARDMENT 40
1 IMAGINGINMEDICINE 1
INFORMATIONABOUTRADIOACTIVENUCLIDES 41
OBJECTIVES 2 PROBLEMS 41
INTRODUCTION 2 SUMMARY 42
CONCLUSIONS 9 REFERENCES 43
REFERENCES 9
4 INTERACTIONSOFRADIATION 45
2 STRUCTUREOFMATTER 11
OBJECTIVES 46
OBJECTIVES 12 CHARACTERISTICSOFINTERACTIONS 46
THEATOM 12 DIRECTLYIONIZINGRADIATION 46
SOLIDS 17 INTERACTIONSOFELECTRONS 48
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 18 INTERACTIONSOFHEAVY,CHARGEDPARTICLES 50
THENUCLEUS 19 INDIRECTLYIONIZINGRADIATION 50
NUCLEARFISSIONANDFUSION 21 INTERACTIONSOFNEUTRONS 50
NUCLEARSPINANDNUCLEARMAGNETICMOMENTS 22 ATTENUATIONOFXANDγ RADIATION 51
NUCLEARNOMENCLATURE 23 NONIONIZINGRADIATION 64
PROBLEMS 23 INTERACTIONSOFNONIONIZINGELECTROMAGNETIC
SUMMARY 24 RADIATION 66
REFERENCES 25 PROBLEMS 67
SUMMARY 67
3 RADIOACTIVEDECAY 27 REFERENCES 68
OBJECTIVES 28 5 PRODUCTIONOFXRAYS 69
NUCLEARSTABILITYANDDECAY 28
ALPHADECAY 29 OBJECTIVES 70
DECAYSCHEMES 29 INTRODUCTION 70
BETADECAY 30 CONVENTIONALX-RAYTUBES 70
ISOMERICTRANSITIONS 33 ELECTRONSOURCE 70
MATHEMATICSOFRADIOACTIVEDECAY 33 TUBEVOLTAGEANDVOLTAGEWAVEFORMS 71
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CONTENTS
RELATIONSHIPBETWEENFILAMENTCURRENTANDTUBE SUMMARY 125
CURRENT 73
REFERENCES 125
EMISSIONSPECTRA 73
FILTRATION 74 8 RADIATIONDETECTORSFORQUANTITATIVE
TUBEVACUUM 79 MEASUREMENT 127
ENVELOPEANDHOUSING 79
OBJECTIVES 128
SPECIAL-PURPOSEX-RAYTUBES 81
IONIZATIONCHAMBERS 128
RATINGSFORX-RAYTUBES 82
PROPORTIONALCOUNTERS 131
PROBLEMS 88
GEIGER–MU¨LLERTUBES 132
SUMMARY 88
SOLIDSCINTILLATIONDETECTORS 134
REFERENCES 89
LIQUIDSCINTILLATIONDETECTORS 136
6 RADIATIONQUANTITYANDQUALITY 91 SEMICONDUCTORRADIATIONDETECTORS 138
PROBLEMS 140
OBJECTIVES 92 SUMMARY 140
INTENSITY 92 REFERENCES 141
TRADITIONALVERSUSSYSTE`MEINTERNATIONAL
UNITS 94 9 ACCUMULATIONANDANALYSIS
RADIATIONEXPOSURE 95 OFNUCLEARDATA 143
UNITSOFRADIATIONDOSE 98
OBJECTIVES 144
DOSEEQUIVALENT 100
INTRODUCTION 144
MEASUREMENTOFRADIATIONDOSE 102
COUNTINGSYSTEMS 144
HALF-VALUELAYER 111
DETERMINATEERRORSINRADIOACTIVITY
VARIATIONINQUALITYACROSSANX-RAYBEAM 112
MEASUREMENTS 149
SPECTRALDISTRIBUTIONOFANX-RAYBEAM 113
GAMMA-RAYSPECTROMETRY 152
PROBLEMS 113
PULSEHEIGHTSPECTRA 152
SUMMARY 114
PHOTOPEAKCOUNTING 156
REFERENCES 115
RADIOACTIVEAGENTSFORCLINICALSTUDIES 157
PROBLEMS 158
7 INTERACTIONOFXANDγ RAYS
INTHEBODY 117 SUMMARY 159
REFERENCES 160
OBJECTIVES 118
INTRODUCTION 118 10 COMPUTERSANDIMAGENETWORKING 161
FFACTOR 118
ATTENUATIONOFXANDγ RAYS OBJECTIVES 162
INTISSUE 119 HISTORY 162
DOSETOSOFTTISSUEBEYONDBONE 121 MACHINEREPRESENTATIONOFDATA 163
HIGH-VOLTAGERADIOGRAPHY 122 COMPUTERSYSTEMHARDWARE 168
LOW-VOLTAGERADIOGRAPHY 122 SOFTWARE 173
CONTRASTMEDIA 123 NETWORKING 173
PROBLEMS 125 PROBLEMS 177
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CONTENTS
SUMMARY 177 DIGITALRADIOGRAPHY 230
REFERENCES 178 PROBLEMS 233
SUMMARY 234
11 PROBABILITYANDSTATISTICS 179 REFERENCES 234
OBJECTIVES 180 14 FLUOROSCOPY 235
INTRODUCTION 180
NATUREOFERROR 180 OBJECTIVES 236
PROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 181 FLUOROSCOPYANDIMAGEINTENSIFICATION 236
SIGNALANDNOISE 183 TELEVISIONDISPLAYOFTHEFLUOROSCOPICIMAGE 241
METHODSTODESCRIBEPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 184 DIGITALFLUOROSCOPY 244
PROPAGATIONOFERROR 188 AUTOMATICBRIGHTNESSCONTROL 245
OTHERMETHODSFORDESCRIBINGPRECISION 190 CINEFLUOROGRAPHY 247
SELECTEDSTATISTICALTESTS 192 PROBLEMS 248
SUMMARY 195 SUMMARY 249
PROBLEMS 195 REFERENCES 249
REFERENCES 195
15 COMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 251
12 INSTRUMENTATIONFORNUCLEARIMAGING 197
OBJECTIVES 252
OBJECTIVES 198 INTRODUCTION 252
INTRODUCTION 198 HISTORY 252
PRINCIPLEOFCOMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHICIMAGING 253
MEASUREMENTOFACCUMULATIONANDEXCRETION
RATES 198 RECONSTRUCTIONALGORITHMS 254
SINGLE-CRYSTALSCINTILLATIONCAMERA 201 SCANMOTIONS 255
PRINCIPLESOFSCINTILLATIONCAMERAOPERATION 202 X-RAYSOURCES 258
MULTIPLE-CRYSTALSCINTILLATIONCAMERA 209 COLLIMATION 258
SOLID-STATECAMERA 209 X-RAYDETECTORS 258
RECTILINEARSCANNER 210 VIEWINGSYSTEMS 258
EMISSIONCOMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 210 PATIENTDOSE 259
PROBLEMS 214 QUALITYCONTROL 260
SUMMARY 215 SUMMARY 262
REFERENCES 215 PROBLEMS 262
REFERENCES 262
13 RADIOGRAPHY 217
16 INFLUENCESONIMAGEQUALITY 265
OBJECTIVES 218
X-RAYFILM 218 OBJECTIVES 266
INTENSIFYINGSCREENS 223 INTRODUCTION 266
RADIOGRAPHICGRIDS 226 UNSHARPNESS 266
MAGNIFICATIONRADIOGRAPHY 229 CONTRAST 270
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CONTENTS
IMAGENOISE 274 ATTENUATIONOFULTRASOUND 308
IMAGEDISTORTIONANDARTIFACTS 276 REFLECTION 311
SUMMARY 278 REFRACTION 313
PROBLEMS 278 ABSORPTION 314
REFERENCES 279 SUMMARY 315
PROBLEMS 316
17 ANALYTICDESCRIPTIONOFIMAGEQUALITY 281
REFERENCES 316
OBJECTIVES 282
20 ULTRASOUNDTRANSDUCERS 317
INTRODUCTION 282
POINTRESPONSE 282
OBJECTIVES 318
LINERESPONSE 282
INTRODUCTION 318
CONTRASTRESPONSE 283
PIEZOELECTRICEFFECT 318
MODULATIONTRANSFERFUNCTION 284
TRANSDUCERDESIGN 319
QUANTUMLEVELSANDCONVERSIONEFFICIENCIES 286
FREQUENCYRESPONSEOFTRANSDUCERS 320
SUMMARY 286
ULTRASOUNDBEAMS 321
PROBLEMS 287
PROBLEMS 329
REFERENCES 287
SUMMARY 329
REFERENCES 329
18 VISUALPERCEPTION 289
21 ULTRASOUNDINSTRUMENTATION 331
OBJECTIVES 290
INTRODUCTION 290
OBJECTIVES 332
HUMANVISION 292
PRESENTATIONMODES 332
DETECTIONOFVISUALINFORMATION 295
TIMEREQUIREDTOOBTAINIMAGES 333
VISUALACUITY 296
SYSTEMCOMPONENTS 335
CONTRASTDISCRIMINATION 296
SIGNALPROCESSING 335
RECOGNITIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFVISUAL
DYNAMICRANGE 337
INFORMATION 298
ULTRASOUNDIMAGEARTIFACTS 338
EXPRESSIONSOFVISUALPERFORMANCE 298
QUALITYCONTROL 338
SUMMARY 300
PROBLEMS 340
PROBLEMS 301
SUMMARY 341
REFERENCES 301
REFERENCES 341
19 ULTRASOUNDWAVES 303
22 DOPPLEREFFECT 343
OBJECTIVES 304
INTRODUCTION 304 OBJECTIVES 344
HISTORY 304 ORIGINOFDOPPLERSHIFT 344
WAVEMOTION 304 LIMITATIONSOFDOPPLERSYSTEMS 351
WAVECHARACTERISTICS 305 PROBLEMS 352
ULTRASOUNDINTENSITY 306 SUMMARY 352
ULTRASOUNDVELOCITY 307 REFERENCES 353
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CONTENTS
23 FUNDAMENTALSOFMAGNETICRESONANCE 355 RADIO-FREQUENCYCOILS 391
ELECTRONICCOMPONENTS 392
OBJECTIVES 356
COMPUTER 393
INTERACTIONOFNUCLEIWITHASTATICMAGNETIC
ARTIFACTS 393
FIELD 356
QUALITYASSURANCE 395
ROTATIONANDPRECESSION 356
BIOEFFECTS 395
INTERACTIONOFNUCLEIWITHARADIOFREQUENCYWAVE:
NUTATION 357 SITEPLANNING 398
INDUCTIONOFAMAGNETICRESONANCESIGNAL SUMMARY 400
INACOIL 358 REFERENCES 401
QUANTUMMECHANICALINTERPRETATION 359
BULKMAGNETIZATION 360 26 EXPERIMENTALRADIOBIOLOGY 403
RELAXATIONPROCESSES:T1ANDT2 361
OBJECTIVES 404
RELAXATIONTIMES(T1ANDT2)FORBIOLOGIC
MATERIALS 363 INTRODUCTION 404
PROBLEMS 364 INTERACTIONSATTHECELLANDTISSUELEVELS 405
SUMMARY 364 CELLSURVIVALSTUDIES 405
REFERENCES 364 MODIFICATIONOFCELLULARRESPONSES 406
ANIMALSTUDIES 409
24 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING
CONCLUSIONS 411
ANDSPECTROSCOPY 367
REFERENCES 411
OBJECTIVES 368
OVERVIEW:MAGNETICRESONANCEASAPROBE 27 HUMANRADIOBIOLOGY 413
OFTHEBODY 368
PULSESEQUENCES 368 OBJECTIVES 414
STOCHASTICEFFECTSOFRADIATION 414
SPATIAL ENCODING OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
SIGNAL 370 NONSTOCHASTICEFFECTSOFRADIATION 414
MOTIONSUPPRESSIONTECHNIQUES 374 DOSIMETRYININDIVIDUALSANDPOPULATIONS 416
CONTRASTAGENTS 376 BACKGROUNDRADIATION 417
TISSUECONTRASTINMAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING 377 HUMANPOPULATIONSTHATHAVEBEENEXPOSED
MRANGIOGRAPHY 380 TOUNUSUALLEVELSOFRADIATION 419
SPECTROSCOPY 380 DOSE-EFFECTMODELS 423
CHEMICALSHIFTIMAGING 383 FACTORSTHATINFLUENCEDOSE–EFFECTMODELS 425
PROBLEMS 384 ESTIMATINGRISKSOFRADIATION:BEIRREPORT 426
SUMMARY 384 SOURCESOFINFORMATION 429
REFERENCES 385 SUMMARY 431
REFERENCES 431
25 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING:
INSTRUMENTATION,BIOEFFECTS,AND 28 PROTECTIONFROMEXTERNALSOURCES
SITEPLANNING 389
OFRADIATION 435
OBJECTIVES 390
OBJECTIVES 436
MAINSYSTEMMAGNET 390
REGULATORYAUTHORITYFORRADIATION
GRADIENTMAGNETICFIELDS 391 PROTECTION 437