Table Of ContentMedia Performance
DENIS McQUAIL
UniversityofAmsterdam,theNetherlands
Mediaperformancehasabroadreferencetotheassessmentofmassmediaprovision
accordingtoarangeofevaluativecriteria,primarilyemploying“objective”indicators
and methods. In practice most attention has been paid to the content of mass media
ratherthanotheraspectsofperformance,suchasaudiencesizeandresponseormes-
sageeffectiveness.However,itisthesewideraspectsofmediaperformancethatreally
mattermost,andthecriteriaappliedincontentresearcharegenerallychosenfortheir
relevancetothesewiderissues.Theprimaryfocushasalwaysbeenonnewsandinfor-
mation.Thecriteriaappliedstemfromthreemainsources:thestandardsofprofessional
communicators, often journalists in print and broadcasting; the sources who set the
objectives of the relevant content, such as informing, persuading, or activating; and
externaladvocatesandcritics, especially thoserepresentingawider “public interest.”
The methods used are typically those of the social sciences, aiming to be systematic,
reliable,andgeneralizinginconclusions.Themainpurposeofperformanceresearchis
the“improvement”ofcontent,asseenfromthedifferentperspectivesmentioned.
Origins and history
Althoughtheoriginofthetermmediaperformanceisuncertain,itwasusedformany
yearstoclassifytopicsofarticles(mainlystudiesofnewscontent)inJournalismQuar-
terly,theofficialpublicationoftheAmericanAssociationforEducationinJournalism
(AAEJ).Thispositionsthenotionofmediaperformanceincloserelationtojournalism
educationandjournalismcriticism,andthedevelopmentoftheprofessionofjournal-
ism.JamesLemert’sbookCriticizingtheMedia(1989)isakeyworkinthistraditionand
in establishing an identity for media performance research. It is essentially a plea for
“empiricalcriticism”deployingvariousconceptsofqualityofperformanceand,some-
times,of“structure”(e.g.,relatingtomonopolyownership).
Lemert distinguished “empirical criticism” from three other theoretical schools,
namely: a Marxist-oriented critique (“political-economic critique” would be a better
term); critical cultural studies; and a social normative orientation. Lemert recom-
mendedcooperationbetweentheoryandempiricalinquiry.Hisownsuggestedtopics
for enquiry into news quality included the effects of chain ownership of newspapers
on editorial independence and community activism, the coverage of environmental
problems,andtheconsequencesofjournalistsrelyingtoomuchonofficialsourcesof
information.Eachofthesereflectsanormativeimpulseandpurpose,relatedinsome
waytoideasofthepublicinterestandtheroleofjournalisminsociety.
TheInternationalEncyclopediaofPoliticalCommunication,FirstEdition.EditedbyGianpietroMazzoleni.
©2015JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Published2015byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
DOI:10.1002/9781118541555.wbiepc095
2 MEDIA PERFORMANCE
Itisnoteasytosetboundariesaroundperformanceresearch,forthereasonsalready
mentioned. Data derived from content analysis only become fully meaningful in
the light of additional evidence of message sources, audience response, and effects.
However, performance evidence from content studies can play an important role in
formulating hypotheses about effects and may also provide an efficient shortcut to
prediction. There is a clear boundary between “empirical performance assessment”
andthelargevolumeofspeculative,qualitativejudgmentsthataremadeaboutmedia
quality. The field of media performance has expanded and diversified in range and
methods, especially where it is applied to characterize the output of a medium (e.g.,
thepress),amediasystem(e.g.,thatofacountry),orachannel(e.g.,anewspapertitle
oraTVstation).
Asnoted,theearliestphaseofmediaperformanceresearchwasshapedbyaconcern
toimprovetheprofessionalqualityofjournalism.Mostatissuewerequalitiesof:accu-
racyandcompletenessofreportingofrelevantfacts;thematchbetween“reality”and
thenewsaccountgiven;theseparationofopinionfrom“fact”;thepresenceof“bias”and
propaganda;andtheavoidanceof“sensationalism”or“trivialization.”Fromthe1960s
onwards,mediaperformanceresearchwasmoreinfluencedbysocialandpoliticalcrit-
icismthanby“internal”professionalconcerns,followingastrongtrendtowardsmore
pressconcentrationandtheriseofradicalmovementsandcriticaltheoryinbothNorth
AmericaandEurope.Theestablishednewsmediawereregardedastoocloselytiedto
powerfulfinancialorpoliticalinterests,subordinatetocommercialobjectives,andlack-
inginaccountabilitytotheirpublics.Theriseoftelevisiontoaprimarypositionasa
sourceofnewsforthemajorityofthepublicindevelopedeconomieswasanotherfac-
torbehindcriticalthinking,sincebroadcastingwasoperated,evenintheUnitedStates,
asalmostanaturalmonopoly.Inpractice,thegreaterpartofnewsofthewidersociety
andworldreachingtheUSpublicwasprovidedbythreelargeTVnetworksthattended
tocopyaswellascompetewitheachother.InEurope,mostbroadcastnewswasalso
providedbypublicmonopolies,withsimilaroutcomes.
The special status informally accorded to television in many societies at the time
went with an expectation that broadcast news would be essentially fair and balanced
asbetweencompetinginterestsandpoliticalgroupingsinsociety.Thistendedtorein-
forceanormativeapproachfrombothprofessionaland“publicinterest”perspectives.
Researchseemedtoshowthat“politicallyimpartial”televisionwasaccordedmorepub-
licattention,trust,andesteemthanthemorepartisannewspaperpress.
Relationship with media policy
ThesituationinWesternEuropeafterWorldWarIIclearlyshowsthequitestrongrela-
tionbetweenthetheoryandpracticeofmediaperformanceresearch.TheUnitedStates
providedthefirststimulustonormativethinkingaboutnewsbywayoftheAmerican
CommissiononFreedomofthePress(Hutchins,1947),throughgivingexpressiontoa
theoryof“socialresponsibility”alongsidetheprincipleoffreedomofthepress.How-
ever, there was no mechanismfor implementingthe recommendationsfor reformor
improvementinjournalisticstandardsandaccountabilitymadebytheCommission.
MEDIA PERFORMANCE 3
Even so, in the immediate postwar era the Federal Communications Commis-
sion (FCC) in the United States was able to enforce some normative standards in
the allocation of broadcasting licenses, with particular reference to independence,
informational content, diversity, and provision of local content. For a time, the
deploymentofthe“FairnessDoctrine”requiredbroadcasterstoofferequalopportuni-
ties to opposing candidates in elections, encouraging close monitoring of air time as
betweencontenders.
In Europe generally, there was more scope for interventionist media policy. There
wasbothaneedto“reconstruct”afreepressafterwarandoccupation,andagreater
capacityandwillforlegitimateintervention.Inaddition,thepublicstatusofradioand
thentelevisionrequiredboththesupervisionofthesemediaandalsotheiracceptance
ofcriteriaofpoliticalandotherformsofneutralityanddiversity,plushighstandards
ofinformativeness.
In several countries, the newspaper press was examined in respect of its standards
bypublicenquiriesandsomeattemptsweremadetorequiremoreaccountability.The
waywasledintheUnitedKingdombyaRoyalCommissiononthePress(1949)that
eventuallyledtotheestablishmentofaself-regulatoryPressCouncil.Italsoestablished
someprinciplesofqualitythathadabasisinaprogramofinquiry,includingcontent
analysis.However,thephaseofmoreorlessactive“mediapolicy”inEurope(generally
alonglinesindicatedbyideasfrom“socialresponsibilitytheory”)graduallycametoan
end,underthecombinedinfluenceofnewtechnology,privatization,andderegulation,
plustheemergenceofquitenewformsofpublicmedia.Nevertheless,thisphasewas
significantinstimulatingagooddealofresearchintoperformance,especiallybutnot
onlyofnewsmedia(seeMcQuail,1992).
Main issues for evaluation
Objectivity and bias
Themainfoundationofmediaevaluationtheoryandresearchwasaconsensusshared
by most professional journalists, social theorists of the press, and the general public
thatnewsmediashouldprovideacontinuousserviceofinformationthatwouldberel-
evanttodifferentneeds,“truthful,”impartial,andthereforetrustworthy.Itwouldalso
beaudiencefriendlyandeffectiveatpubliccommunicationonalargescale.Thetopics
thatcapturedmostearlyattentionintheresearchtraditionwerethoseof“readability”
(akeytocomprehension),diversity,andinformativeness(sometimesrecognizedbyits
absence,orevenitsopposite,asin“sensationalism”).
However,fromatleasttheearly1970sincreasingattentionwaspaidtotheobverseof
“objectivity,”namely“bias”orevenpropaganda.Aprimaryaimofcriticalresearchwas
toassessthebalanceofattentioninnewsbetweenvariouscompetingsources,subject
matter, political parties, and points of view. There were strong suspicions of hidden
ideological and manipulative motives. This trend in research was associated with the
intensificationofeffortstocreateandmanagenewsonthepartofcompetitorsforpublic
attentiononfavorableterms.Contentanalysiswasstillthemainresearchmethodand
4 MEDIA PERFORMANCE
politicaltopicspredominated(examplesinclude:Efron,1971;GlasgowMediaGroup,
1976;Hofstetter,1976).
Organizational and structural influences
Inquiries into the organization of news production drew attention away from
hypothesesofdeliberatepropagandatowardstheinfluenceoffactorsstemmingfrom
the structure and work practices of media organizations. Researchers produced con-
vincingevidencethatnewscontentwassystematicallyshapedinitsproductionandout-
putbyfactorsotherthanintrinsicinformativesignificanceandvalueoranydeliberate
bias.AreviewofsuchstudiesbyShoemakerandReese(1996)foundthemostcommon
explanationsofvariationsinnewsqualitytolieinoneoffourcategories:personalchar-
acteristics of journalists; organizational routines of news-making; external economic
andinstitutionalinfluences;andideologyandthedistributionofpowerinsociety.
International communication and balanced flow
Agrowingcriticalattentiontointernationalcommunication,especiallyinthecontext
of relations between East and West and between North and South, led to a marked
stimulustoperformanceresearch,startingwithSchramm’s(1964)reportforUNESCO,
revealing the very small and skewed attention paid by the US press to the rest of the
world,especiallyits“undeveloped”regions.Themoresuchresearchwascarriedoutin
differentcountries,theclearerbecamethepatternof“imbalance”inworldnewsatten-
tion,inbothquantityandquality.Richernationstransmittedtheirviewoftheworld
andpoorernationswereheavilyreliantonit.Explanationscouldbefoundmainlyinthe
effectoforganizationalimperatives,deeplyrooted“newsvalues,”andthestructureof
themarketfornews,aswellasfundamentalimbalancesbetweennation-states.Every-
day practice contradicted in its outcomes the standards of objective reflection of the
“real”world,butnosolutioncouldbefoundthatwouldbecompatiblewithprinciples
ofpressfreedomorpoliticalandeconomicrealities.
Diversity
The standard of “diversity” (of sources, orientation, and information provided) was
advanced from an early point as a desirable condition of media provision, especially
because of its clear link with the more fundamental principle of freedom. It seemed
axiomatic thatthemore freedomin media arrangements,themore diversewould be
the outcome in opportunities for would-be voices in the society and choice for con-
sumersofinformation.Theideaofdiversityprovedtobemorecomplexinpracticeto
operationalize(seebelow),withseveralvarietiesclaimingpriorityasidealsubcriteria.
War and peace news
Aperennialobjectofattentioninthepostwarerawasthemediacoverageaccordedto
a series of conflicts in which western powers were involved, including recurrent out-
breaksintheMiddleEast,theVietnamWar,and,morerecently,thewarsinIraqand
MEDIA PERFORMANCE 5
Afghanistan.Numerousotherconflicts,oftensemi-colonialorrelatedtotheColdWar,
alsogainedattention.Notablewasthesteadilyincreasingvisibilityandaccessibilityof
sucheventstojournalismandthecorrespondingincreasedeffortsbytheparticipantsto
managetheemergingnewspictureintheirfavor.Theemergingconsensusofresearch
has confirmed the relative success of these efforts and the widespread willingness of
national news media to follow the lines set by their own governments, at least in the
shortterm.However,thereisalsoevidenceofgreaterglobaldiversityofreportingand
ofthetemporarycharacterofmuchnewsmanipulation.
Implications for political communication
Thestudyofpoliticalcommunicationhasbeeninitselfamajorstimulustoresearchon
mediaperformance,asoutlinedhere,becauseoftheintimateconnectionwithpotential
oractualeffects.Severalkeyconceptsofthetraditionarecentraltopoliticalcommu-
nication and others have been developed for their particular relevance. Among the
former,mostattentionhasbeenpaidtotheissuesofbiasandobjectivity,asdiscussed.
Inrespectofthelatterarefoundmorecomplexnotions,relatingtothetypeofinforma-
tionprovidedandthestyleandtoneofpresentation.Relevantpoliticalcommunication
researchbeganwiththestudyofthepartplayedbythemediainthe1940USpresiden-
tialelection(Lazarsfeld,Berelson,&Gaudet,1944).Acoreelementherewasameasure
oftimeandspaceavailabletodifferentcandidatesandissues,withaviewtocorrelating
relativeattentiontomovementsofopinionandlevelsofinformation.
Such research was more guided by an interest in the effectiveness of media cam-
paigns,orjusttheempiricaloutcomesofnewscoverage,thanbyawishtoapplynor-
mativejudgmentsaboutpossiblebiasorimbalance.Mostoftheseedsoflaterconcerns
werealreadyplanted,however.Intheinterveningyears,somedistinctlynewconcerns
have emerged in political communication research. One relates to the quality of the
informationofferedbymassmediaduringanelectioncampaign,accordingtocriteria
ofwhatvotersinademocracymightbeexpectedtoneed.Thiswasfirsthighlightedby
evidenceshowingadistincttendencyformediatogivedifferentialattentiontopersonal
and “horse-race” aspects of the events, focusing on the personalities and the “game”
ratherthanthepoliticalissuesatstake(Graber,1976).Whilethismayhelptoattract
and keep audiences, it also deprives them of much relevant information for political
choiceandreducesthechancesofcontenderstopersuadeonthebasisofsubstantive
issues.
IntheUnitedStates,wherepoliticaladvertisinghasfewlimits,itseffectshaveoften
been studied, with similar ideas in mind. Advertising typically provides very limited
informationorargument,relyingonvisualandemotionalimpactandrepetition,often
withaverynegativemessage.Theculpritsherearethepoliticalsources,notthemedia
themselves.
Building on varied evidence, researchers have developed and tested a number of
relatedhypothesesaboutpoliticalcommunication,andinanumberofcountries.They
arelargelysummedupundertheterm“mediatization”(Schulz,2004).Thisisacomplex
6 MEDIA PERFORMANCE
concept,butitscentralideaisthatpoliticalcommunicationbyoronbehalfofpoliti-
calpartiesandcandidateshaslargelybeen“captured”bythemedia,whichapplytheir
own performance standards rather than those of the agents or mediators of politics.
The founding idea is related to the influence of a “media logic.” This means a way of
thinkingabouthowbesttouseamediumsoastomaximizeappeal,audiencesize,and
impact. In the case of television this means giving priority to features such as visual-
ization,personification,dramatization,andsoon.Theinformationandothersubject
matterissecondarytotheformsmostfavoredbymediaprofessionalsforconveyingit.
Manyofthefeaturesmentionedareopentosystematicmonitoringfromanormative
orcriticalperspective.
Main indicators of performance relevant to political
communication
The three leading indicators that have figured in performance research are probably
thoseof“independence,”“objectivity,”“informativeness,”and“diversity.”Allfourhave
beendefinedandmeasuredinvariousways.
Theconceptofindependencehasbeenthemostdifficulttoassess,beyondthepointat
whichthemediastructureandsystemprotectandencouragethevirtueofmediafree-
dombywayoflaw,economicregulation,orinstitution-building.Howmediaactually
usetheirfreedomisanotherstoryandhardertoassess,althoughevidencecanbegained
fromobservationofpractice.Thus,themoremediaarecritical,investigative,argumen-
tative,participant,andstimulatingtoactionintheirreporting,themoreindependent
theymaybeaccounted.
Objectivity has been the object of much critical and definitional effort. The simple
idea is that it means adopting a neutral standpoint, concentrating on verifiable facts,
separatingthesefromcomment,being“fair”toalternative“sides”andpointsofview,
andavoidingconsciousbiasorideology.Amoredevelopedviewdistinguishesqualities
of“informativeness”fromthoseofbalance,linkingittobothtrustandreliability,and
distinguishingqualitiesofthe“message”fromthoseoftheformofpresentation(that
canaffecttheperceivedbalance)(Westerstahl,1980).
Informativenessprovidesablankettermtorefertoseveralbasicfeaturesofthepublic
roleallottedto,oracceptedby,massmediainamodernsociety.Ithasseveralsubprin-
ciples.First,thereshouldbeacomprehensivemonitoringofeventsandconditionsin
anationalsocietyandinthewiderinternationalenvironment,essentialforwarningof
risks, dangers, or emerging problems and relevant to the public reached. Second, the
informationpublishedshouldbebasedongoodevidenceandasfaraspossibletrueto
the reality observed. It should be complete enough in essentials, accessible and com-
prehensible,and,ifpossible,presentedinwaysthatareeffectiveinachievinglearning
outcomesandraisingbroadpublicawarenessofrelevantfacts.
Diversitymayhaveevenmorecomplexitiesofdefinition,partlybecauseitcanapply
toseveralquitedifferentaspectsofperformance,althoughthesimplemeaningisclear.
Betterforcitizensfromthepointofviewofdemocraticpoliticaltheoryisaccesstoa
wide range of different sources, kinds of information, ideas, and points of view from
MEDIA PERFORMANCE 7
whichtochoose.Betterforwould-becommunicatorsisaccesstoalternativechannels
and varied audiences. Even so, there are normative choices to be made, for instance
betweenaconditionofseparationandtensionbetweenpoliticalalternativesandone
of consensus and mixed values and beliefs. The often unstated basis for judging the
diversityofmediaarrangementsistheextenttowhichmediacontentandsourcesor
voicesreflectthecompositionofapopulationinproportionalandrelevantterms,for
instancesinrelationtopoliticalallegiance,socialclass,ethnicity,geographicallocation,
andsoon.
Inlinewithmorerecentthinkingabout“mediatization,”outlinedabove,anumber
ofotherconceptshavecomeintoplay.Significantarethefollowing:
• Sensationalism, as indicated by a bias to the personal, dramatic, negative types of
contentandformsofpresentation.
• Negativity, a widely observed tendency in journalism to portray all politics in an
unfavorablelight,emphasizingitstendenciestodishonesty,hypocrisy,unreliability,
self-servingnature,evencorruption.Theeffectsaresaidtoemergeinamorecynical
attitudeamongvotersgenerallyandadetachmentfrompoliticalparticipation.
• Investigative and “watchdog” features. Primary among the positive virtues to be
expected from political journalism (as opposed to political actors) is a devotion
touncoveringandpublicizinganyformofmalpracticeonthepartofgovernment
or other major social institution. However, the assessment of the way in which
this role is carried out is not straightforward. Much depends on the actual target
ofinvestigationanditssignificance,aswellasonthequalityofevidencegathered
and the style of reporting. More to be valued is reporting that takes on powerful
opponents,caresaboutvictims,andacceptssomeeconomiccostsandotherrisks
asaresult.
Theoretical challenges arising from changing media
Thecentralparadigmsforperformanceresearchdatefromaperiodwhenkeymedia
in the public sphere were (mass) press and broadcasting. The rise of online media
and now “mobile” media has not only changed the actual forms and platforms of
political communication, but also introduced new criteria of quality and success.
The central basic change has been from a linear, transmission model to a circular,
interactive process. Effective and desirable communications in the public sphere
involvenewelementsofaudienceandcitizeninvolvementandmutualresponsiveness.
Newtypesofaccess,andnewformsandformatswithinnewstructures,havegivenrise
to new possibilities and challenges. All of this requires much rethinking of concepts,
forms of assessment, and relevance of the existence repertoire of media performance
research.
8 MEDIA PERFORMANCE
Research methods and problems
Thepredominantmethodofresearchintomediaperformance,leavingasidequestions
ofreachandeffect,hasbeenthatofcontentanalysis,initiallyofprintedtextsbutlater
extended to audiovisual media and more recently to online channels. This transition
was not too difficult in respect of such variables as sources, topics, and objects of
attention,sincetimeallocationcouldbeequatedwithwordcounts.Familiarconven-
tions of presentation of print media in terms of sequence and relative prominence
could also be assumed to apply equally to other media. However, visual elements
presentednewissuesthatwerenotalwaysfaced.
Textanalysistypicallyassumedthatwordsusedinnaturallanguageshaveknownand
moreorlessfixedmeanings,withaverylimitedrangeofinterpretation.Newsphotos
andotherimages,however,typicallyhavenoknowncodeasacertainguidetothelikely
interpretation,andmovingpictureandmultimedianewsorotherreportspresenteven
greater problems of assessment of direction, meaning, intention, and interpretation.
Developments in discourse analysis, semiology, and linguistics have helped, but also
openedupmoredoubtsthansolutions.
Despitesuchwell-knowndifficulties,avarietyofstrategiesandapproacheshavebeen
developed to solve practical problems. These developments include the invention of
softwareforqualitativeanalysisofcontent,therecognitionofrecurrentvisualcodesin
news,newwaysofassessingvaluedirection,theapplicationofthenotionof“framing”
to all forms of presentation, and the use of ethnographic methods to record varia-
tionsinthepatternofaudienceinterpretation.Atfirstsight,onlinenewsandinforma-
tiondonotseemtopresentanyinsuperableobstacleandmayevenhavesomeadvan-
tages, by virtue of their ready availability. However, they have as yet no settled form
and the conventions of presentation and patterns of audience use and response have
notbeenestablished.Performanceanalysisremainsviable,buthasalsobecomemore
demanding.
Changes in media and media systems have also been challenging. Of particular
relevance is the sheer multiplication and diversification of relevant outlets of media
content, especially online. In the past, it was usually possible to focus closely on a
national media system and on the key channels that would have most general social
orpoliticalsignificance—afewmajororpopularnewspapersandafewwidelyviewed
televisionchannels.Itwaspossibletomakeassumptionsfromconcentratedattention
on these about overall “quality” and probable tendencies of effect on a majority of
citizens.
Future of performance research
The last decade or so of media change has seen a reduction in the societal control
exertedonmedia,asidefromthedisciplinesofthemarketplace,andthuslessinterest
on the part of lawmakers and regulators in the “quality” of content. Critical voices
and some of the pressure behind demands for monitoring or normative intervention
have been weakened. The greater reliance on media self-regulation has allocated the
MEDIA PERFORMANCE 9
taskof“mediaevaluation”tothemanagementofmediafirms.Somecontrolofmedia
structure to limit concentration, guarantee basic freedoms, protect individuals from
harm, and ensure a minimum degree of accountability is still to be found, but these
goalsarenotveryactivelypursuedinmostnationalcontexts.Thetrendsmentioneddo
not,however,reflectanylesseningoftheneedforevaluativeresearchonbehalfofthe
wider society and citizens, or of the importance of implementing appropriate norms
inanevermore“mediated”society.
SEE ALSO:Accountability;ContentAnalysis;MediaLogic; Mediatization;Normative
Theories;PoliticalCommunication;PublicInterest
References
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Graber,D.(1976).Pressandtelevisionasopinionresourcesinpresidentialcampaigns.Public
OpinionQuarterly,40(3),285–303.
Hofstetter,C.R.(1976).Biasinthenews:Networkcoverageofthe1972electioncampaign.Colum-
bus,OH:OhioStateUniversityPress.
Hutchins,R.(1947).CommitteeonFreedomofthePress.Afreeandresponsiblepress.Chicago,
IL:ChicagoUniversityPress.
Lazarsfeld,P.F.,Berelson,B.,&Gaudet,H.(1944).Thepeople’schoice.NewYork,NY:Columbia
UniversityPress,.
Lemert,J.B.(1989)Criticizingthemedia.BeverlyHills,CA:Sage.
McQuail,D.(1992).Mediaperformance.London,UK:Sage.
RoyalCommissiononthePress(1947–1949).Report.Cmd7700.London,UK:HMSO.
Schramm,W.(1964).Massmediaandnationaldevelopment.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversity
Press.
Schulz,W.(2004).Reconstructing“mediatization”asananalyticconcept.EuropeanJournalof
Communication,19(1),87–102.
Shoemaker,P.,&Reese,S.(1996)Mediatingthemessage(2nded.).WhitePlains,NY:Longman.
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Further reading
Bennett,W.L.,Laurence,R.G.,&Livingston,S.(2007).Whenthepressfails.Chicago,IL:Chicago
UniversityPress.
Denis McQuail is professor emeritus and honorary fellow at the Amsterdam School
for Communication Research (ASCOR), University of Amsterdam, where he taught
for20yearsuntilretirementin1997.HeisprobablybestknownforhisbookMcQuail’s
MassCommunicationTheory,whichhasappearedinsixeditionsandbeentranslated
into numerous languages. His most recent book publication is Journalism and Soci-
ety (Sage, 2013). Although he is no longer actively engaged in research, his interests
remaininallaspectsofcommunicationandtheory,withparticularreferencetopublic
communication,politics,andsociety.
