Table Of ContentMeasurement of Food Preferences
Measurement of Food Preferences
Edited by
H.l.H. MAcFIE
Head of Department of Consumer Sciences
AFRC Institute of Food Research
Reading
and
D.M.H. THOMSON
MMR Product and Concept Research
The Lord Zuckerman Research Centre
Reading
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
First edition 1994
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
OriginalIy published by Chapman & HalI in 1994
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1994
Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong
ISBN 978-1-4613-5908-1 ISBN 978-1-4615-2171-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2171-6
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Preface
This book provides comprehensive coverage of the numerous methods
used to characterise food preference. It brings together, for the first time,
the broad range of methodologies that are brought to bear on food choice
and preference.
Preference is not measured in a sensory laboratory using a trained
panel - it is measured using consumers by means of product tests in
laboratories, central locations, in canteens and at home, by questionnaires
and in focus groups. Similarly, food preference is not a direct function of
sensory preference - it is determined by a wide range of factors and
influences, some competing against each other, some reinforcing each
other.
We have aimed to provide a detailed introduction to the measurement
of all these aspects, including institutional product development, context
effects, variation in language used by consumers, collection and analysis
of qualitative data by focus groups, product optimisation, relating prefer
ence to sensory perception, accounting for differences in taste sensitivity
between consumers, measuring how attitudes and beliefs determine food
choice, measuring how food affects mood and mental performance, and
how different expectations affect sensory perception.
The emphasis has been to provide practical descriptions of current
methods. Three of the ten first-named authors are university academics,
the rest are in industry or research institutes. Much of the methodology
is quite new, particularly the repertory grid coupled with Generalised
Procrustes Analysis, Individualised Difference Testing, Food and Mood
Testing, and the Sensory Expectation Models.
Thanks are due to the publishers for encouraging the text in the first
place and for preparing the final copy accurately and quickly.
H.J.H.M.
D.M.H.T.
Contributors
A. V. Cardello Consumer Research Branch, Behavioral Sciences
Division/Soldier Science Directorate, Department
Troop Support Group, RD&E Center, US Army
Natick Research, Development and Engineering
Center, MA 01760-5020, USA
M.A. Casey Minnesota Extension Service, University of Min
nesota, 320 Vocational Technical Education Building,
1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108,
USA
M.T. Conner Department of Psychology, The University of Leeds,
Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
S. Edwards Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
N. Gains Reading Scientific Services Limited, The Lord
Zuckerman Research Centre, University of Reading,
Whiteknights, PO Box 234, Reading RG6 2LA, UK
M.W. Green Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
K. Greenhotl' MSTS, 54-62 Station Road East, Oxted, Surrey
RH8 OPG, UK
R.A. Krueger Minnesota Extension Service, University of Min
nesota, 320 Vocational Technical Education Building,
1954 Buford Avenue, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108,
USA
H.J.H. MacFie Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
Vlll CONTRIBUTORS
H.L. Meiselman Chief, Behavioral Science, Science and Advanced
Technology Directorate, Department Troop Support
Group, RD&E Center, US Army Natick Research,
Development and Engineering Center, MA 01760-
5020, USA
H.R. Moskowitz Moskowitz Jacobs Inc., 14 Madison Avenue, Valhalla,
NY 10595, USA
P.J. Rogers Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
H.G. Schutz Division of Textiles and Clothing, University of
California, 129 Everson Hall, Davis, CA 95616, USA
R. Shepherd Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
P. Sparks Consumer Sciences Department, AFRC, Institute of
Food Research, Earley Gate, White knights Road,
Reading RG6 2EF, UK
D.M.H. Thomson MMR Product and Concept Research, The Lord
Zuckerman Research Centre, Whiteknights, PO Box
234,Reading RG6 2LA, UK now Wallingford House,
High Street, Wallingford, Oxford, OXlO ODB, UK.
Contents
1 A measurement scheme for developing institutional products 1
H. L. MEISELMAN
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Phase I. Consumer marketing 3
1.2.1 Whom to test 3
1.2.2 What to test 4
1.2.3 How to test 4
1.3 Phase II. Individual item sensory testing 5
1.3.1 Trained and consumer panels 6
1.3.2 Choice of rating scales 7
1.4 Phase III. Consumer meal testing - laboratory 10
1.4.1 What is a meal? 10
1.4.2 Acceptance and consumption 11
1.5 Phase IV. Consumer meal testing - field 12
1.5.1 Realism 12
1.5.2 Test population 12
1.5.3 Adhering to test protocol 13
1.5.4 Item and meal acceptance 13
1.6 Phase V. Prototype testing 15
1.7 Phase VI. Extended ration use validation 18
1.8 Phase VII. Quality control testing 21
1.9 How to use the seven-phase testing sequences 22
References 23
2 Appropriateness as a measure of the cognitive-contextual
25
aspects of food acceptance
H.G. SCHUTZ
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Description of procedures for appropriateness, item by use technique 27
2.2.1 Selection of stimuli 27
2.2.2 Format of the questionnaire 31
2.2.3 Selection of respondents 33
2.2.4 Collection of non-appropriateness data 34
2.2.5 Data collection 35
2.2.6 Analysis of appropriateness data 35
2.2.7 Use of principal component analysis 39
2.2.8 Analyses with non-appropriateness data 48
2.3 Conclusions 49
References 49
3 The repertory grid approach 51
N. GAINS
3.1 Introduction 51
3.1.1 Food choice 51
x CONTENTS
3.1.2 Personal construct theory 52
3.2 Methodology 52
3.2.1 Repertory grid method 52
3.2.2 Statistical analysis of repertory grids 53
3.2.3 Generalised Procrustes analysis 54
3.3 Application 54
3.3.1 The different aspects offood choice 54
3.3.2 Investigating the food: general perceptions, sensory
characteristics and reasons for choice 55
3.3.3 Investigating consumers 61
3.3.4 Investigating contexts of use 63
3.3.5 Interaction of foods, consumers and context of use 67
3.3.6 Extending repertory grid methodology: laddering, preference
mapping and other procedures 74
3.4 Conclusions 74
References 75
4 Focus group interviewing 77
M.A. CASEY and R.A. KRUEGER
4.1 Introduction 77
4.1.1 Advantages and limitations of focus groups 77
4.1.2 Myths about focus groups 78
4.2 The process of conducting focus groups 79
4.2.1 Designing a study 79
4.2.2 Developing the questioning route 81
4.2.3 Recruiting participants 84
4.2.4 Moderating 86
4.2.5 Analysis 90
4.2.0 Validity and reliability - Can we really trust this stuff? 94
4.3 Summary 96
References 96
5 Product optimization: approaches and applications 97
H.R. MOSKOWITZ
5.1 Background and applications 97
5.1.1 What is product optimization? 97
5.1.2 Historical background 97
5.2 Steps in a designed experiment and product optimization study 99
5.2.1 Selection of variables and their levels - systematic versus
haphazard designs 101
5.2.2 Questionnaire development 102
5.2.3 Test implementation 105
5.2.4 Analysis of the data - a multi-step process 110
5.3 A case his tory - salsa 111
5.3.1 Experimental design 111
5.3.2 Results 113
5.3.3 Analysis phase 1, R-R analysis 113
5.3.4 Analysis phase 2, S-R (stimulus-response) analysis 118
5.3.5 Three examples of optimization technology 125
5.4 An overview 135
References 136
CONTENTS xi
6 Preference mapping in practice 137
K. GREENHOFF and H.I.H. MACFIE
6.1 Introduction 137
6.1.1 An alternative approach 138
6.2 External preference analysis - Prefmap 139
6.2.1 The method 139
6.2.2 Case study using external analysis 141
6.2.3 Problems with external preference mapping 145
6.3 Internal analysis - MDPREF 146
6.3.1 Method 146
6.3.2 Case study using internal analysis 149
6.4 Advantages and limitations of preference mapping 160
6.5 Aspects of conduct 163
References 165
7 An individualised psychological approach to measuring
167
influences on consumer preferences
M.T. CONNER
7.1 Introduction 167
7.2 Measuring individual consumer preferences 167
7.2.1 Acquisition of food preferences 169
7.2.2 Relating determinants to food preferences: the acceptance
triangle 170
7.2.3 Principles of consumer preference measurement 173
7.3 Psychophysical acceptance parameters 175
7.3.1 Ideal point (IP) 177
7.3.2 Rejections ratio (RR) 177
7.3.3 Tolerance discrimination ratio (TDR) 178
7.4 Aggregation of individuals' acceptance parameters 182
7.5 Measuring determinants of acceptance in the 'real world' 189
7.5.1 Multiple determinants 189
7.5.2 Unidentified determinants 193
7.5.3 Non-sensory determinants 195
7.6 Conclusions 198
References 198
8 Modelling food choice 202
R. SHEPHERD and P. SPARKS
8.1 Introduction 202
8.2 Factors influencing food choice 202
8.3 Beliefs and attitudes 205
8.4 Application of the theory of reasoned action to food choice 209
8.4.1 Fat intake: the roles of attitudes and nutritional knowledge 209
8.5 Extensions of the theory of reasoned action 212
8.5.1 Perceived control 212
8.5.2 Habit 213
8.5.3 Self-identity 214
8.5.4 Consumption of chips 215
8.5.5 Biscuits and bread 217
8.5.6 Organic vegetables 219
8.6 Conclusions 221
References 223
XlI CONTENTS
9 Nutritional influences on mood and cognitive performance:
227
their measurement and relevance to food acceptance
P.I. ROGERS, M.W. GREEN and S. EDWARDS
9.1 Introduction 227
9.2 Relevance to food acceptance of dietary effects on behaviour 227
9.3 Conceptual issues 229
9.3.1 Mood and emotion 229
9.3.2 Arousal, mood and cognitive performance 231
9.3.3 Effects of food on mood and cognitive performance 234
9.4 Methodological issues 236
9.4.1 Experimental design 236
9.4.2 Sensitivity and validity of measures 237
9.4.3 Mood measures 238
9.4.4 Mood induction 241
9.4.5 Measures of cognitive performance 242
9.5 Caffeine: a case study 246
9.6 Summary 248
References 248
10 Consumer expectations and their role in food acceptance 253
A.V. CARDELLO
10.1 Introduction 253
10.1.1 Food acceptance: definition and measurement 253
10.1.2 Overview 255
10.2 The plausible role of expectations in food behavior 256
10.2.1 Oral texture and temperature 257
10.2.2 Flavor 262
10.2.3 Appearance: food and its packaging 267
10.2.4 Ideational effects 273
10.3 Consumer expectations and food acceptance 275
10.3.1 Expectations as a construct 275
10.3.2 Expectations: sensory versus hedonic 277
10.3.3 Models of the effect of disconfirmed expectations 277
10.3.4 Measuring expectations and confirmation/disconfirmation 279
10.4 Experimental studies 281
10.4.1 Sensory disconfirmation 281
10.4.2 Direct manipulation of expectations 283
10.4.3 Direct manipulation of disconfirmation levels 287
10.5 Summary/conclusions 291
References 291
Index 298
