Table Of ContentCeramic
Engineering
& Science
Proceedings
JANUARY-FEBRUARY1 991
Materials 81 EauiomentMlhitewares
A Collection of Papers Presented at the
92nd Annual Meeting
and the
1990 Fall Meeting
of the
Materials & Equlpment and
Whitewares Divisions
Russell Wood
Proceedings Committee
April 23-26, 1990
Dallas, TX
and
September 30-October
3
Nashville, TN
Tile
A Collection of Papers Presented at the
92nd Annual Meeting
Barbara Jacoby
Tile Symposium Program Co-Chair
April 23-26,1990
Dallas, TX
Published by
The American Ceramic Society, Inc.
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Copyright@1 991,
The American Ceramic Society, Inc.
ISSN 01 96-621 9
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CESPDK Vol. 12, NO.1 -2, pp. 1-392, 1991
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Each issue of Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings includes a collection
of technical articles in a general area of interest, such as glass, engineering
ceramics, and refractories. These articles are of practical value for the ceramic
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Table of Contents
Materials & Equipment/Whitewares
........................................
Preface
vii
.........
Steps in the Development of Floor Tile Technology 1
H. Reh
............................
Solving Firing Problems 13
J. Richard Schorr and Dale A. Fronk
Utilizing SPC for Raw Materials to Improve Pigment
......................................
Quality.. 22
John A. Clark, I11
The Use of Montmorillonites as Extrusion Aids for
.......................................
Alumina 33
M. Miller and R. A. Haber
...................
Optimization of Color in Body Tiles 49
Felipe Lamilla
Microwave Drying of Slip Casting: Out of the
......................
Laboratory and Into the Factory 54
Bruce A. Freed, Hank Dusseldorp, Jack Klieb, Brian Woods, and
Steve Oda
.........
Zircon Iron Corals: Improved Corals for the 1990s 62
Christopher T. Decker
Prediction of Gel Structures in Slips Using Computer
..............................
Modeling Techniques 68
G. Crume and D. R. Dinger
Dewatering and Particle-Size Distribution Studies of
............
Fast-Casting, High Void Volume Kaolin Clays 80
J. J. Callahan, W. L. Garforth, W. J. Polestak, and E. J. Sare
...
111
Characteristics of Large Extensions in the Size
.......................
Distribution for Alumina Slips 93
P. A. Smith and R. A. Haber
Effects of Moisture on the Firing Characteristics of
......................
Glasses Used in Ceramic Glazes 97
E. J. Pawlicki, W. Bowser, V. Grebe, D. Sproson, and E. Sadd
........
Use of Polyphosphates as Deflocculants of Alumina 106
J. Faison and R. A. Haber
Effects of Ball-Clay Processing on Suspension
......................................
Rheology 116
Chris B. Maxwell and Dennis R. Dinger
X-Ray Spectrometry-A Potent Tool in the Quality
..............................
Control of Ball Clays 123
M. J. Stentiford
.........................
Particle-Size Measurements 133
John J.
Cooper
...............
Particle-Size Analysis of Whiteware Clays 144
J. M. Woodfine
Chemical Manufacturers Association: CHEMSTAR
............................
Crystalline Silica Panel 146
Joseph C. Shapiro
Use of Ceramic Coatings to Enhance Performance of
..........................
Metal Furnace Components 152
John Hellander
How High Emissivity Ceramic Coatings Function
.................
Advantageously in Furnace Applications 162
John Hellander
Computer-Controlled Weighing Systems for the
Production of Colored Glazes, Using Easily
..........................
Dispersible Ceramic Stains 170
Alan Sefcik
...................
Application of Spersastain Pigments 173
Alan Sefcik
iv
........................................
Preface 177
..................................
Tile Glossary.. 179
George Gehringer
.................
Porous and Vitrified Single-Fired Tiles 183
Loris Lorici and August0 Brusa
...................................
Color Figures 185
A Professional Approach to Objective Color
......................................
Language 222
Claudio Marcello Monari
...................
Directions in Tile Color and Texture 229
Barbara Ann Jacoby and Iris Florath
........
The Technology in Whitewares is Changing Rapidly 233
H. Reh
.................
Machinery Update: Matching the Needs 243
M. Masini
Technical Developments in Ceramic Tile Glazes and
..............................
Related Applications 261
Bruno Burzacchini
...........................
Dry Dispersible Pigments 275
Terry D. Wise, Stephen H. Murdock, and Richard A. Eppler
The Role of Basic Oxides in Leadless Frits for Fast-
.....................................
Fire Glazes 282
S. T. Blachere
Glazing and Decorating Aids for the Manufacture of
................................
Single-Fired Tiles 293
Bruno Guski
Continuous Wet Grinding in the Floor and Wall Tile
.......................................
Industry 308
G. Nassetti and C. Palmonari
V
.......
Granulation of Powders for Whitebody Ceramic Tiles 328
G. Nassetti and G. Timellini
.............
Save Fuel and Energy by Firing 300°F Lower 343
William M. Jackson I1
..............
Practical Solutions for Fast-Fire Tile Faults 350
Barbara Ann Jacoby and Maurice Pare
................
Mechanical Performance of Ceramic Tile 357
G. Carani and G. Timellini
Abrasion Resistance of Glazed Tile: Characterization
of the Quality and Prediction of Performance in
...............................
Working Conditions 369
G. Carani, G. Timellini, C. Palmonari, and A. Tenaglia
IS0 Standards for Ceramic Floor and WaII Tile:
........................
Present Situation and Outlook 382
C. Palmonari and A. Tenaglia
vi
Materials & Equipment/Whitewares
The group of papers in this section was presented at the national
meeting of the American Ceramic Society in Dallas, April 23-26, 1990,
and at the Materials & Equipment/Whitewares Divisions meeting in
Nashville, September 304ctober 3, 1990.
These papers represent work ranging from laboratory studies to
plant process investigations, from raw materials to finished products.
In many instances, the report will have direct application to whitewares
production, either by giving the reader a better understanding of raw
material preparation and quality control procedures, or by learning the
results of analyses of specific operating problems.
We are appreciative of the effort by the authors of these papers, not
only for the time involved in the actual work, but for the effort
required for the preparation of the paper, and, in many instances,
considerable travel to reach the meeting place. These Proceedings serve
as a permanent record of their presentations.
Russell K. Wood
American Standard, Inc.
vii
Ceramic Engineering & Science Proceedings
Editor by John B . Wachtrnan
Copyright@ 1991, The American Ceramic Society, Inc.
Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc. 12[1-2] pp.
1-12 (1991)
Steps in the Development of Floor Tile Technology
H. REH
Verlag Schmid GMBH
Freiburg, Germany
The most important global technological innovations in jbor tile production since
I960 are viewed in light of the enhancements of capacities and their effects on
production costs and quality. The participation of t k m r t ile industry in the
world’s ceramic production is discwsed. The development in the past few decades
is described in detail. In this contat, dry pressing and wet exlrusion are discussed.
The expected technological developments are given jiml consideration.
Introduction
Floor tiles have been around for centuries. In Europe, the first mention
of floor tiles appeared in 1020 when ceramic tiles were laid in the
A.D.
floor of a monastery near Regensburg. They may have originated from
bricks-ven the Ancient Romans clad their floors with not only mosaics
of natural stones but also relatively rustic ceramic tiles. At that time
ceramics’ capacity to store heat well was its essential virtue, which is
the reason why ceramics were mainly used in the baths.
Ceramic tiles first became interesting for floors when it became
possible to produce denser bodies that were consequently more resistant
to abrasion. In Europe, this occurred sometime after the 14th century.
Modern tile production has its industrial roots in the beginning of
the 19th century when the first experiments with dry pressing were
conducted. In the middle of the 19th century, extrusion machines had
reached the point where plastic compounds could be shaped mechani-
cally. One can well suppose that the upswing in the second half of the
19th century proceeded accordingly. At that time, larger factories
appeared, particularly in Great Britain and Germany, which produced
floor tiles using the dry-pressing techniques.
One Product-Two Manufacturing Techniques
From the beginning, floor tiles were shaped from both powder and
plastic bodies. For different reasons, wet-shaped tiles were, for the
most part, transported through the production processes in a vertical
1
position on the narrow cant. As the bodies became increasingly thinner
and the individual tile could no longer remain standing on its edge, split
tiles developed. The term is deceiving. It simply refers to a pair of
tiles that are attached to one another on the reverse side, while the outer
surfaces can, for example, be glazed. The result is a broader supporting
area. According to experience, these kinds of double tiles require a
total thickness of at least 32 mm in the wet state if falling tiles are to be
avoided. Only after firing are the double tiles separated. The most
widely used variants today are presented in Fig. 1. It is estimated that
approximately 10% of all floor tiles are extruded in the wet process.
That is also and especially due to the fact that the necessary raw
materials for this purpose are quite rare. Plastic clays with a suitable
sintering behavior are in demand. Dry pressing, in contrast, gets by
with far less plastic clays. During the molding cycle, workability is
almost negligible. The particularly advantageous green strength of
plastic clays can also be "artificially" achieved by means of the
appropriate additives; this is done frequently. When two different
processes can simultaneously hold their own for so long, there must be
a reason. It has to do with the various advantages that, due to the
particular technology, enter into the tiles. Table I makes this compari-
son. Certain demands can sometimes only be fulfilled by one of the two
methods.
Table I. Advantages of Dry- or Wet-Shaped Floor Tiles
Dry Wet
Close tolerances
(no dry shrinkage)
Thin pieces Thick pieces
(coarse-grained structure)
Easy to decorate "Natural" look
(plane surface) (if fired in tunnel kiln)
Fine-grained structure Surface profiles
Floor Tiles Are an Important Sector in Ceramics
If one takes aside bricks, then the current production of ceramics
in the Western world is an estimated $50 billion/year. The distribution
is shown in Table I1 (the required raw materials are likewise indicated).
2
1 Diminution Crushing
/I
BY
2a Batching By volume nass
2b (Brox
feeder)
2C (Dker)
I
Milling Screen pan Fine I 111
3
mill grinding mill/
Fine roll 1 11 Blunger
mill
I
4 Classi- one Sieving
CY
fication
,
5 Storing Clay silo, 0 Storage
etc. arc
6 Mixing
h!
-
7a Drying Dry- Fluid
bed,
7b Milling Pan Pan
mill
8 Storing Clay silo, Silo "i'
etc.
9 Shaping Extruder Extruder Dry Dry Db
-----------------Pr-ess --Pr-ess- -P-res-s
-Route A B C D E F
Granulates
Fig. 1. Flow sheet of typical preparation in the tile industry
3
