Table Of Contentpolyspinis, in Alaska: Commercial  fish- 
ery, distribution, and biology,” 4:1—28 
Coral, bamboo 
Authors, Titles, and  Hawaiian Islands harvest, 1:13 
Subjects in the Marine  Coral, black 
Hawaiian Islands harvest, 1:13 
Fisheries  Review 64(1—4)  Coral, gold 
Hawaiian Islands harvest, 1:13 
Coral, pink 
Hawaiian Islands harvest, 1:13 
Coral, red 
Hawaiian Islands harvest, 1:13 
A 
Burrell, Jr., Victor G.—see MacKenzie, Jr.,  Corals, precious 
Ablennes hians—see Needlefish, flat  et al.  Hawaiian Islands 
Agujon  Burrfish, striped  bed locations, 1:14 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  Cross Seamount bed survey, 1:18-19 
Algae, pico  Busycotypus  canaliculatus—see  Whelks,  commercial harvest, 1:13-—20 
adverse effect on northern quahogs, 2:10—  smooth  fisheries management plan, 1:13 
1]  Bycatch  Keahole Point bed survey, 1:17-18 
Alopias superciliosus—see  Shark, bigeye  northern rockfish, 4:5—6  Makapuu bed survey, 1:16—17 
thresher  shark, 4:40-49  research dives, 1:14 
Aluterus sp.—see Leatherjackets  Corallium secundum—see Coral, pink 
Cc 
Antipathes dichotoma—see Coral, black  Corallium spp.—see Corals, precious 
Antipathes grandis—see Coral, black  Callinectes sapidus—see Crab, blue  Cortés, Enric—see Beerkircher et al. 
Arnold, William S.—see MacKenzie, Jr., et  Cancer irroratus—see Crab, rock  Cowfish 
al.  Caranx crysos—see Runner, blue  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24 
Asteria forbesi—see Starfish  Caranx ruber—see Jack, bar  Crab, blue 
Aureococcus anophagefferens—see Algae,  Carcharhinus  falciformis—see  Shark, silky  quahog predator, 2:5 
pico  Carcharhinus longimanus—see Shark, oce-  Crab, hermit 
anic whitetip  quahog predator, 2:4 
B 
Carcharhinus obscurus— see Shark, dusky  Crab, lady 
Balaenoptera  acutorostrata—see  Whale,  Carcharhinus plumbeus—see Shark, sand-  quahog predator, 2:5 
common minke  bar  Crab, mud 
Balaenoptera borealis—see Whale, sei  Carcharhinus signatus—see Shark, night  quahog predator, 2:4 
Balaenoptera musculus—see Whale, blue  Catch  Crab, rock 
Balaenoptera physalus—see Whale, fin  assessing fishing capacity in Alaska, 4:29-—  quahog predator, 2:4 
Balao  39  Crab, spider 
Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21  northern rockfish, 4:3, 5-6  quahog predator, 2:4 
Balistes capriscus—see Triggerfish, gray  by gear type, 4:7-8  Crangon septemspinosa—see  Shrimp, se- 
Ballyhoo  south Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21-—  venspine bay 
Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21  27  Cypselurus—see Flyingfishes 
Barracuda, great  “Characteristics of shark bycatch observed  D-E 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  on pelagic longlines off the southeastern 
Beerkircher, Lawrence R., Enric Cortés, and  United States, 1992-2000,” by Lawrence  Dasyatis violacea—see Stingrays 
Mahmood  Shivji,  “Characteristics  of  R.  Beerkircher,  Enric  Cortés,  and  Dermo 
shark  bycatch  observed  on  pelagic  Mahmood Shivji, 4:40—49  northern quahog, 2:7 
longlines  off the  southeastern  United  Chasmades bosquianus—see Blennies  Dermochelydae—see Turtle, sea 
States, 1992-2000,” 4:40-49  Cheloniidae—see Turtle, sea  Dogfish, spiny, 4:40 
Belonidae—see Needlefish  Chilomycterus  schoepfi—see  Burrfish,  Dyspanopeus sayi—see Crab, mud 
Blennies  striped  Economics 
quahog predator, 2:3  Chriodorus  atherinoides—see  Halfbeak,  assessing fishing capacity and utilization, 
Braun-McNeill,  Joanne,  and  Sheryan  P.  hardhead  4:29-39 
Epperly, “Spatial and temporal distribu-  Chub, Bermuda  Hawaiian Islands precious corals, 1:18 
tion of sea turtles in the western North  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  Epperly,  Sheryan  P.—see  Braun-McNeill 
Atlantic and the U.S. Gulf of Mexico from  Clapham, Phillip J.—see Reeves et al.  and Epperly 
Marine  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics  Clausen, David M., and Jonathan  Heifetz,  Eubalaena glacialis—see Whale, North At- 
Survey (MRFSS),” 4:50-56  “The  northern  rockfish,  Sebastes  lantic right 
64(4)
Eupleura caudata—see Oyster drill, thick-  G-H-I  Reeves, Tim D. Smith, Robert L. Webb, 
lip  Galeocerdo cuvier—see Shark, tiger  Jooke Robbins, and Phillip J. Clapham, 
Exocoetus—see Flyingfishes  Gear—see also Nets  1:1-12 
northern rockfish Alaska fishery, 4:7-8  Hyporhamphus  meeki—see  _Halfbeak, 
F 
pelagic longline in southeastern U.S., 4:41  silverstripe 
Felthoven, Ronald G., Terry Hiatt, and Jo-  quahog harvesting  Hyporhamphus unifasciatus—see Halfbeak, 
seph M. Terry, “Measuring fishing capac-  basket rake, 2:43-44  silverstripe 
ity and utilization with commonly avail-  bull rakes, 2:40-43  J-K-L 
able  data:  an  application  to  Alaska  hand tonging, 2:40 
fisheries,” 4:29-39  hydraulic dredge, 2:44  Ilyanassa obseleta—see Mudsnail, eastern 
Filefish, fringed  hydraulic escalator harvester, 2:44—45  Ilyanassa trivittata—see Mudsnail, threeline 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  kicking, 2:45  Isurus oxyrinchus—see Mako, shortfin 
Filefish, planehead  patent tongs, 2:40  Jack, bar 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  pea digger, 2:40  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24 
Fisheries, commercial  rocking chair dredge, 2:44  Kyphosus sectatrix—see Chub, Bermuda 
assessing fishing capacity and utilization  sail dredge, 2:43  Lactophrys quadricornis—see Cowfish 
in Alaska, 4:29-39  scuba picking, 2:45—46  Lagodon rhomboides—see Pinfish 
early quahog commerce, 2:34-38  seed forks, 2:40  Lamna nasus—see Porbeagle 
Hawaiian Islands precious corals,  1:13-  short raking, 2:39  Larus argentatus—see Gull, herring 
20  signing, 2:39-40  Leatherjackets 
northern rockfish in Alaska, 4:1—28  sorters, 2:46  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23 
south Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21-  south Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21-  Lepidisis olapa—see Coral, bamboo 
27  27  Libinia sp.—see Crab, spider 
Fisheries, recreational  Galeorhinus zyopterus—see Shark, soupfin  M 
Marine  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics  Gerardia sp.—see Coral, gold 
Survey  Gobies  MacKenzie, Jr., Clyde L., Allan Morrison, 
sea turtle sightings, 4:50-56  quahog predator, 2:3  David L. Taylor, Victor G. Burrell, Jr., 
Fisheries history  Gobiosoma bosc—see Gobies  William  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T. 
quahogs  Grigg, Richard W., “Precious corals in Ha-  Wakida-Kusunoki, “Quahogs in eastern 
Canada, 3:2—5  waii: discovery of a new bed and revised  North America: Part I, biology, ecology, 
early commerce, 2:34-38  management measures for existing beds,”  and historical uses,” 2:1—55 
fishery development, 2:32-34  1:13-20  MacKenzie, Jr., Clyde L., Allan Morrison, 
harvesting gear and methods, 2:38-46  Grunt, white  David L. Taylor, Victor G. Burrell, Jr., 
Mexico, 3:47-48  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  William  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T. 
New England clambakes, 2:24-32  Gull, herring  Wakida-Kusunoki, “Quahogs in eastern 
United States, 3:5—47  quahog predator, 2:5, 7  North America: Part II, history by prov- 
wampum making and usage, 2:12—24  Habitat  ince and state,” 3:1-64 
Whaling, Gulf of Maine, 1:1-12  northern quahog, 2:8-9  Mako, shortfin 
Fisheries management  Haemulon plumieri—see Grunt, white  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish- 
Hawaiian Islands precious coral fishery,  Halfbeak, hardhead  ery bycatch, 4:41-49 
1:13-20  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  McBride, Richard S., and Justin R. Styer, 
Marine  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics  Halfbeak, silverstripe  “Species composition, catch rates, and size 
Survey (MRFSS)  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23  structure of fishes captured in the south 
sea turtle sightings, 4:50-56  Harengula jaguana—see Sardine, scaled  Florida lampara net fishery,” 1:21—27 
northern quahogs, 2:11,  Heifetz, Jonathan—see Clausen and Heifetz  “Measuring fishing capacity and utilization 
northern rockfish trawl surveys, 4:14—-26  Hemipteronotus splendens—see Razorfish,  with commonly available data: An appli- 
pelagic  longline fishery shark  bycatch,  green  cation to Alaska fisheries,” by Ronald G. 
4:40-49  Hemiramphus balao—see Balao  Felthoven,  Terry Hiatt, and Joseph M. 
sea turtles, 4:50-56  Hemiramphus brasiliensis—see Ballyhoo  Terry, 4:29-39 
Flounder, winter  Herring, Atlantic thread  Megaptera  novaeangliae—see  Whale, 
quahog predator, 2:6  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  humpback 
Flyingfish, sailfin  Hiatt, Terry—see Felthoven et al.  Mercenaria  campechiensis—see  Quahog, 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  History—see Fisheries history  southern 
Flyingfish, smallwing  Houndfish  Mercenaria  mercenaria—see  Quahog, 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23  northern 
Flyingfishes  “Humpback and fin whaling in the Gulf of  Midway coral—see Coral, precious 
Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21  Maine from 1800 to 1918,” by Randall R.  Minchinia nelsoni—see MSX 
58  Marine Fisheries Review
Monacanthus ciliatus—see Filefish, fringed  new bed and revised management mea-  life history attributes, 2:3 
Monacanthus  _hispidus—see  _ Filefish,  sures for existing beds,” by Richard W.  management programs, 3:55 
planehead  Grigg, 1:13-20  Native Americans and, 2:11-24 
Morrison, Allan—see MacKenzie, Jr. et al.  Prionace glauca—see Shark, blue  1600’s shell heaps, 2:13-14 
MSX  Q  predator avoidance, 2:6 
northern quahog, 2:7  predators, 2:3—-4, 9 
Mudsnail, eastern  QPX  seasonal employment, 3:53-54 
quahog predator, 2:7  northern quahog, 2:7-8  spreading shell and oysters, 3:56 
Mudsnail, threeline  Quahog parasite x—see QPX  surfclam fishery, effect of, 3:55 
quahog predator, 2:7  Quahog, northern  trade size changes, 3:52 
Mulinia lateralis—see Surfclam, dwarf  anatomy, 2:4  transplanting, 3:55—56 
aquaculture development, effect of, 3:55  United States fishery 
N-O-P 
bay/ocean water exchanges, 2:8-9  Florida, 3:42-45 
Needlefish, flat  biology, 2:2-3  Gulf states, 3:45-47 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23  Canadian fishery  Long Island, N.Y., 3:17-23 
Needlefish, keeltail  culture, 3:5  Maryland, 3:33-35 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:23  dealers, 3:4—5  Massachusetts, 3:5—10 
Needlefish, redfin  fishing methods, 3:3—-4  North Carolina, 3:36—40 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  government regulations, 3:3  Raritan Bay, N.Y. and N.J., 3:23-33 
Needlefishes  history, 3:2-5  Rhode Island, 3:11—17 
Florida lampara net fishery, 1:21  recreational fishery, 3:5  South Carolina, 3:40—42 
Nets  characteristics, 2:2  Virginia, 3:35—36 
lampara, 1:21  community views of industry, 3:53  wampum 
“The northern rockfish, Sebastes polyspinis,  diseases, 2:7-8  belts, 2:15-18 
in Alaska: Commercial fishery, distribu-  early commerce, 2:34-38  currency, 2:14-15 
tion, and biology,” by David M. Clausen  fishermen, 3:52—53  European settler making, 2:20—24 
and Jonathan Heifetz, 4:1-28  geographic range, 2:2, 3  fur trading, 2:18-20 
Nucula proxima—see Nutclam, Atlantic  government regulations, 3:48—52  Hiawatha belt, 2:16-17 
Nutclam, Atlantic  harvesting gear  ornamentation, 2:15 
quahog association  in Great South Bay,  quahog harvesting  prehistory, 2:13 
2:9  basket rake, 2:43-44  purple and white, 2:12-13 
Oligoplites saurus—see Leatherjacket  bull rakes, 2:40—43  strings, 2:15-18 
Opisthonema  oglinum—Herring,  Atlantic  hand tonging, 2:40  uses, 2:12 
thread  hydraulic dredge, 2:44  Washington belt, 2:16—17 
Ovalipes occelatus—see Crab, lady  hydraulic escalator harvester, 2:44-45  Quahog, southern 
Oxyporhamphus micropterus—see Flying-  kicking, 2:45  biology, 2:2-3 
fish, smallwing  patent tongs, 2:40  characteristics, 2:2 
Oyster drill, Atlantic  pea digger, 2:40  geographic range, 2:2 
quahog association  in Great South Bay,  rocking chair dredge, 2:44  Mexican fishery 
2:9  sail dredge, 2:43  aquaculture prospects, 3:48 
quahog predator, 2:4  scuba picking, 2:45—46  harvesting methods, 3:48 
Oyster drill, thick-lip  seed forks, 2:40  landing statistics, 3:48 
quahog association  in Great South Bay,  short raking, 2:39  local quahog consumption, 3:48 
2:9  signing, 2:39-40  markets and marketing, 3:48 
quahog predator, 2:4  sorters, 2:46  “Quahogs in eastern North America: Part I, 
Pagurus longicarpus—see Crab, hermit  harvesting methods  biology, ecology, and historical uses,” by 
Parexocoetus brachypterus—see Flyingfish,  hand picking, 2:39  Clyde L. MacKenzie, Jr., Allan Morrison, 
sailfin  treading, 2:38-39  David L. Taylor, Victor G. Burreil, Jr., 
Perkinsus marinus—see Dermo  hatchery production, 3:56—57  William  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T. 
Pinfish  historical landings, 2:8  Wakida-Kusunoki, 2:1—55 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  industry recommendations  “Quahogs in eastern North America: Part II, 
Platybelone argalus—see Needlefish, keel-  control starfish, 3:60  history by province and state,” by Clyde 
tail  enlarge inlets, 3:60  L. MacKenzie, Jr., Allan Morrison, David 
Pleuronectes  americanus—see  Flounder,  other actions, 3:60-61  L. Taylor, Victor G. Burrell, Jr., William 
winter  invertebrates associated with, 2:9  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T.  Wakida- 
Porbeagle, 4:40  landings, 2:34  Kusunoki, 3:1—64 
“Precious corals in Hawaii: discovery of a  life cycle, 2:2, 5 
64(4)
R-S  Selar crumenophthalmus—see Scad, bigeye  winter flounder predation, 2:6 
Shark, bigeye thresher  Surfclam, dwarf 
Ray, cownose  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  quahog association in Great South Bay, 
quahog predator, 2:5  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  2:9 
Razorfish, green  Shark, blue  Swordfish 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  pelagic longline fishery 
Reeves, Randall, R., Tim D. Smith, Robert  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  shark bycatch, 4:40 
L. Webb, Jooke Robbins, and Phillip J.  Shark, dusky  T-U-V 
Clapham, “Humpback and fin whaling in  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish- 
the Gulf of Maine from 1800 to 1918,”  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Taylor, David L_—see MacKenzie, Jr., et al. 
1:1-12  Shark, night  Terry, Joseph M.—see Felthoven et al. 
Rhinoptera bonasus—see Ray, cownose  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  Thunnus spp.—see Tunas 
Robbins, Jooke—see Reeves et al.  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Triggerfish, gray 
Rockfish, northern  Shark, oceanic whitetip  Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24 
commercial fishery in Alaska  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  Tunas 
Aleutian Islands fishery, 4:7  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  pelagic longline fishery 
catch by gear type, 4:7-8  Shark, sandbar  shark bycatch, 4:40 
catch depth distribution, 4:8-9  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  Turtle, sea 
catch statistics, 4:3—5  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Marine  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics 
CPUE in Guolf Alfask a, 4:13-14  Shark, scalloped hammerhead  Survey (MRFSS) 
discard rates, 4:7  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  US. Atlantic sightings, 4:51-53, 54— 
domestic, 4:3-14  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  55 
foreign, 4:2-3  Shark, silky  U.S. Gulf of Mexico sightings, 4:53- 
Gulf of Alaska fishery, 4:6-7  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  54, 55-56 
joint venture, 4:3  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Tylosurus acus—see Agujon 
location of fishing grounds, 4:9-12  Shark, soupfin, 4:40  Tylosurus crocodilus—see Houndfish 
management history, 4:3-5  Shark, tiger  Urosalpinx cinerea—see Oyster drill, Atlan- 
on-bottom vs. off-bottom catches, 4:7—  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  tic 
8,9  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Vessels 
seasonality of fishery, 4:7  Shivji, Mahmood—see Beerkircher et al.  capacity estimates in Alaska, 4:29-39 
sex ratio in Guolf Aflask a, 4:12-13  Shrimp, sevenspine bay 
W-X 
size caught in fishery, 4:12  quahog predator, 2:4 
targeted vs. bycatch fishing, 4:5—6  Starfish  Wakida-Kusunoki, Armando T.—see Mac- 
trawl surveys in Alaska, 4:14  quahog predator, 2:4, 7  Kenzie, Jr., et al. 
age, 4:22-24  Smith, Tim D.—see Reeves et al.  Wampum 
biomass estimates, 4:15  “Spatial  and temporal  distribution  of sea  1600’s shell heaps, 2:13-14 
catch  comparison  with  commercial  turtles in the western North Atlantic and  belts, 2:15-18 
fishery, 4:16-18  the U.S. Gulf of Mexico  from  Marine  currency, 2:14—-15 
catch  distribution, 4:16-18  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics  Survey  European settler making, 2:20-24 
depth distribution, 4:15—16  (MRFSS),” by Joanne Braun-McNeill and  fur trading, 2:18-20 
growth, 4:22-24  Sheryan P. Epperly, 4:50-56  Hiawatha belt, 2:16—-17 
juvenile locations and depths, 4:20-21  “Species composition, catch rates, and size  ornamentation, 2:15 
maximum length, 4:20  structure of fishes captured in the south  prehistory, 2:13 
sex ratio, 4:21—22  Florida lampara net fishery,” by Richard  purple and white, 2:12-13 
size composition, 4:19  S. McBride and Justin R. Styer, 1:21-27  strings, 2:15-18 
substrate preference, 4:18-19  Sphyraena barracuda—see Barracuda, great  uses, 2:12 
Runner, blue  Sphyrna lewini—see Shark, scalloped ham-  Washington belt, 2:16—-17 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:21,  merhead  Webb, Robert L.-see Reeves et al. 
24  Spisula solidissima—see Surfclam  Whale, blue, 1:1 
Sardine, scaled  Sport fisheries—see Fisheries, recreational  Whale, common minke, 1:1 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  Squalus acanthias—see Dogfish, spiny  Whale, fin 
Sardine, Spanish  Stingrays  Gulf of Maine historical whaling, 1:1 
Florida lampara net fishery landings, 1:24  characteristics of, in pelagic longline fish-  Whale, humpback 
Sardinella aurita—see Sardine, Spanish  ery bycatch, 4:41-49  Gulf of Maine historical whaling, 1:1 
Scad, bigeye  Strongylura notata—see Needlefish, redfin  Whale, North Atlantic right, 1:1 
Florida lainpara net fishery landings, 1:23  Styer, Justin R.—see McBride and Styer  Whale, sei, 1:1 
Sebastes polyspinis—see Rockfish, northern  Surfclam  Whaling, historical 
Marine Fisheries Review
Guolf fMai ne  menhaden steamer whaling, 1:4, 8-9  species composition, 1:9-10 
1870’s—1890’s, 1:49  opportunistic vs. dedicated, 1:10  Whelks, smooth 
grounds, 1:9  pre-Civil War (1860), 1:3-4  quahog predator, 2:4 
hunting loss, 1:9  records, 1:5-7  Xiphias gladius—see Swordfish 
Indian, 1:1  schooner whaling, 1:4 
List of Papers 
Papers in the Marine 
Fisheries  Review 64(1—4) 
64(4) 
“The northern rockfish, Sebastes polyspinis, 
in Alaska: Commercial fishery, distribu- 
tion, and biology,” by David M. Clausen 
and Jonathan Heifetz, 4:1—28 
64(1)  64(2)  “Measuring fishing capacity and utilization 
with commonly available data: an appli- 
“Humpback and fin whaling in the Gulf of  “Quahogs in eastern North America: Part I,  cation to Alaska fisheries,” by Ronald G. 
Maine from  1800 to 1918,” by Randall  biology, ecology, and historical uses,” by  Felthoven,  Terry Hiatt, and Joseph M. 
R.  Reeves,  Tim  D.  Smith,  Robert  L.  Clyde L. MacKenzie, Jr., Allan Morrison,  Terry, 4:29-39 
Webb,  Jooke  Robbins,  and  Phillip  J.  David L. Taylor, Victor G. Burrell, Jr.,  “Characteristics of shark bycatch observed 
Clapham, 1:1—12  William  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T.  on pelagic longlines off the southeastern 
“Precious corals in Hawaii: discovery of a  Wakida-Kusunoki, 2:1—55  United States, 1992-2000,” by Lawrence 
new bed and revised management mea-  64(3)  R.  Beerkircher,  Enric  Cortés,  and 
sures for existing beds,” by Richard W.  Mahmood Shivji, 4:40—49 
Grigg, 1:13-20  “Quahogs in eastern North America: Part II,  “Spatial and temporal  distribution  of sea 
“Species composition, catch rates, and size  history by province and state,” by Clyde  turtles in the western North Atlantic and 
structure of fishes captured in the south  L. MacKenzie, Jr., Allan Morrison, David  the U.S.  Gulf of Mexico  from  Marine 
Florida lampara net fishery,” by Richard  L. Taylor, Victor G. Burrell, Jr., William  Recreational  Fishery  Statistics  Survey 
S. McBride and Justin R. Styer, 1:21-27  S. Arnold,  and  Armando  T.  Wakida-  (MRFSS),” by Joanne Braun-McNeill and 
Kusunoki, 3:1—64  Sheryan P. Epperly, 4:50—-56