Table Of ContentFolkert de Jong
Marine Eutrophication in Perspective
Folkert de Jong
Marine
Eutrophication
in Perspective
On the Relevance of Ecology
for Environmental Policy
With 20 Figures
DR.FOLKERT DE JONG
International Wadden Sea Secretariat
CWSS
Virchowstr. 1
26382 Wilhelmshaven
Deutschland
e-mail:
[email protected]
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006923640
ISBN-10 3-540-33647-8 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York
ISBN-13 978-3-540-33647-1 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York
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Preface and acknowledgements
The idea for this book, in which the results of a Ph.D.-study, carried out at the
University of Groningen (NL), are presented, has its roots in my personal experi-
ences with international marine pollution policies, in which I became profession-
ally involved in the mid 1980s. At that time, marine eutrophication was high on
the political agenda in Northwest Europe, and it was exciting to be part of the in-
tensive political activities that happened between 1985 and 1990. After that, I be-
came intrigued by the very rapidly decreasing political interest in the issue, while
scientific and management activities continued at a high level of intensity. This
confronted me with questions about the compatibility of the political and scientific
processes and the relevance of ecology for environmental policy. These themes, as
well as the fascinating history of marine eutrophication, are what this study is
about.
I am much indebted to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Wim Wolff, Prof. Dr. Francis-
cus Colijn and Dr. Henny van der Windt, who provided me with valuable ideas
and suggestions for both the contents and the structure of this book and, most of
all, for their stimulating support all along the way. I am also grateful to Dr. Wolf-
gang Hickel for his extensive comments on first drafts of the manuscript.
I would furthermore like to thank the members of the review committee, Prof.
Dr. Rutger Rosenberg, Prof. Dr. Victor de Jonge and Prof. Dr. Michiel Herweijer,
for critically reading the final manuscript.
Special thanks go to Jens Brøgger Jensen, Dr. Gerhard Cadée, Prof. Dr. Victor
de Jonge, Dr. Winfried Gieskes and Dr. Karel Essink, with whom I have held per-
sonal interviews.
I would also like to thank Dr. Justus van Beusekom, who has taught me a lot
about the science of marine eutrophication, as well as Prof. Dr. Karsten Reise for
providing useful advice at the start of the project.
What would a scientific study be without libraries? I am very grateful for the
excellent support by the librarians of
Biological Centre, Haren;
University of Groningen;
University of Kiel;
Scripps Institute, La Jolla;
NIOZ, Texel;
ICES, Copenhagen;
Terramare, Wilhelmshaven;
Senckenberg Institute, Wilhelmshaven;
VI Preface and acknowledgements
Bundesforschungsanstalt für Fischerei, Hamburg;
Bundesanstalt für Seeschifffart und Hydrography, Hamburg;
Environment Ministry, Oslo;
Secretariat Helsinki Commission, Helsinki;
English Nature, Peterborough.
Special thanks go furthermore to Roger Staves, Prof. Dr. Mike Elliott and Ni-
cola Ricklefs for correcting my English, and to Gerold Lüerßen for his support in
drawing maps and figures.
Finally, I thank my wife Tessy and my sons Daniel and Jonathan for their pa-
tience and their conviction that one day the work would really be finalised.
Acronyms
ACE Advisory Committee on Ecosystems (ICES)
ACME Advisory Committee on the Marine Enionment (ICES)
ACMP Advisory Committee on Marine Pollution (ICES)
ASMO Assessment and Monitoring Committee (OSPAR)
BAH Helgoland Marine Station
BMP Baltic Monitoring Programme (Helcom)
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
C Carbon
CEC Commission of the European Communities (European Commis-
sion)
CFC ChloroFluoroCarbons
CPR Continuous Plankton Recorder
DIN Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen
DIP Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorous
DPEUT Drafting Panel on Eutrophication (OSPAR)
DSP Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
EC European Community
EcoQO Ecological Quality Objective
EEC European Economic Community
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EQO Environmental Quality Objective
EU European Union
EUC Eutrophication Committee (OSPAR)
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation (UN)
GESAMP Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
(UN)
HAB Harmful Algal Blooms
Helcom Helsinki Commission
ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
IGO Intergovernmental Organisation
IMM Intermediate North Sea Ministerial Meeting
INSC-1 1st International North Sea Conference (Bremen, 1984)
INSC-2 2nd International North Sea Conference (London, 1987)
INSC-3 3rd International North Sea Conference (The Hague, 1990)
INSC-4 4th International North Sea Conference (Copenhagen, 1995)
INSC-5 5th International North Sea Conference (Bergen, 2002)
IOC International Oceanographic Committee (UN)
VIII Acronyms
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JAMP Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme (OSPAR)
JMG Joint Monitoring Group (OSPAR)
JMP Joint Monitoring Programme (OSPAR)
MCWG Marine Chemistry Working Group (ICES)
MMP Monitoring Master Plan
MPB Marine Pollution Bulletin
N Nitrogen
NAO[I] North Atlantic Oscillation [Index]
NAEP National Agency for Environment Protection (DK)
NERC National Environment Research Council (UK)
NERI National Environment Research Institute (DK)
NEUT Nutrients and Eutrophication Committee (OSPAR)
NIOZ Nederlands Institute for Sea Research
NSTF North Sea Task Force (OSPAR and ICES)
NUT Nutrient Working Group (OSPAR)
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Oscom Oslo Commission
OSPAR concerning the Oslo and Paris Conventions (before 1992) or the
OSPAR Convention (as of 1992)
Osparcom Oslo and Paris Commissions (before 1992) or OSPAR Commis-
sion (as of 1992)
P Phosphorus
p.e. population equivalent
Parcom Paris Commission
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PRAM Programmes and Measures Committee (OSPAR)
PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
PWG Policy Working Group (INSC-2)
Preparatory Working Group (INSC-3)
QSR Quality Status Report
RIZA Governmental Institute for Water Purification (NL)
SACSA Standing Advisory Committee on Scientific Affairs (Oscom)
Si Silicon
SIME Substances in the Marine Environment working group (OSPAR)
STWG Scientific and Technical Working Group (INSC-2)
TWG Technical Working Group (Parcom)
UES Uniform Emission Standard
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNCHE United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
US[A] United States [of America]
USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency
WFD Water Framework Directive (EU)
WHO World Health Oganisation
WRc Water Research Centre (UK)
Contents
1 Introduction: Ecology for policy.......................................................................1
1.1 Science for policy........................................................................................3
1.1.1 Rational policy-making........................................................................3
1.1.2 The policy life-cycle.............................................................................4
1.2 Science for policy: a myth?..........................................................................6
1.2.1 Contextual factors.................................................................................7
1.2.2 Science in the policy life-cycle.............................................................9
1.3 Matching science and policy........................................................................9
1.4 Aims and structure of the study.................................................................11
2 The art of discharging......................................................................................15
2.1 The sewage problem..................................................................................16
2.1.1 Waste disposal in the marine environment.........................................16
2.1.2 The WHO inventory...........................................................................17
2.2 Water pollution research............................................................................19
2.3 The contribution of ecology.......................................................................20
2.3.1 Computers and modelling...................................................................21
2.3.2 Process control...................................................................................22
2.3.3 Homeostasis.......................................................................................22
2.3.4 Interactions with the physical-chemical environment........................22
2.3.5 Biological indicators...........................................................................23
2.4 Emerging limits..........................................................................................25
2.4.1 Pollution cases....................................................................................25
2.4.2 Waste classification............................................................................26
2.4.3 Recommendations..............................................................................27
2.5 Marine pollution and IGOs........................................................................28
2.5.1 The ICES working group on pollution of the North Sea....................28
2.5.2 The United Nations and marine pollution..........................................29
2.5.3 The NATO North Sea science conference..........................................32
2.6 Pollution control........................................................................................34
2.6.1 The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment...................34
2.6.2 Marine pollution science-policy networks.........................................35
2.7 Summary and conclusions.........................................................................36
2.7.1 The causes of marine pollution...........................................................36
2.7.2 The role of science.............................................................................37
2.7.3 Public awareness................................................................................38
X Contents
2.7.4 Science and marine pollution management........................................38
2.7.5 Marine pollution science-policy networks.........................................39
3 The discovery of marine eutrophication.........................................................41
3.1 Freshwater Eutrophication.........................................................................42
3.1.1 The OECD survey..............................................................................43
3.1.2 Eutrophication, causes, consequences, correctives............................44
3.1.3 The limiting nutrient controversy.......................................................45
3.2 Marine Eutrophication...............................................................................47
3.2.1 The US West Coast............................................................................47
3.2.2 The N/P ratio......................................................................................48
3.2.3 Red tides.............................................................................................50
3.2.4 The Oslo Fjord...................................................................................53
3.2.5 The North Sea....................................................................................54
3.2.6 The Baltic Sea....................................................................................63
3.2.7 Estuaries and nutrients.......................................................................71
3.3 The relative importance of marine eutrophication.....................................74
3.3.1 The Marine Pollution Bulletin............................................................74
3.3.2 AMBIO..............................................................................................76
3.3.3 Eutrophication in marine pollution textbooks....................................77
3.4 Marine eutrophication and official bodies.................................................79
3.4.1 ICES...................................................................................................80
3.4.2 The Helsinki commission...................................................................85
3.4.3 The German Council on Environmental Affairs................................87
3.5 Summary and conclusions.........................................................................88
3.5.1 The main themes in the study of marine eutrophication.....................89
3.5.2 The relative importance of marine eutrophication research...............92
3.5.3 The assessment of marine eutrophication...........................................93
3.5.4 Marine ecology and marine eutrophication policy.............................93
4 The politics of marine eutrophication.............................................................95
4.1 1981–1985: The assembly of a problem....................................................98
4.1.1 Oxygen depletion in the Skagerrak-Kattegat and Belt areas..............99
4.1.2 Oxygen depletion in the German Bight............................................102
4.1.3 Dutch coastal waters.........................................................................103
4.1.4 International scientific advice..........................................................104
4.1.5 International politics and marine eutrophication..............................109
4.2 1986–1987: Political decision-making....................................................113
4.2.1 Eutrophication in the Southern Bight...............................................114
4.2.2 Scientific advice on marine eutrophication......................................118
4.2.3 Environmental policy principles......................................................126
4.2.4 The science-policy interface: the Nutrient Working Group.............128
4.2.5 The second North Sea Conference...................................................133
4.3 Recapitulation: marine eutrophication constructed..................................137
4.4 1988–1990: Towards the third North Sea Conference.............................139
4.4.1 The 1988 catastrophes......................................................................140
Contents XI
4.4.2 Marine eutrophication reviewed.......................................................143
4.4.3 Science-policy interactions 1988–1990............................................149
4.4.4 Political developments 1988–1990...................................................165
4.5 Summary and conclusions.......................................................................168
4.5.1 The construction of the marine eutrophication problem...................169
4.5.2 Science and political decision-making.............................................170
4.5.3 The implementation of the North Sea Conference decisions............172
4.5.4 Strengthening the science-policy network........................................173
5 The management of marine eutrophication.................................................175
5.1 New knowledge.......................................................................................177
5.1.1 What causes phytoplankton blooms?...............................................178
5.1.2 The impacts of marine eutrophication..............................................187
5.1.3 New knowledge: an analysis............................................................195
5.2 New knowledge and the science-policy interface....................................198
5.2.1 A mandatory programme for nutrient monitoring............................201
5.2.2 Assessment: The 1993 and 2000 Quality Status Reports.................207
5.2.3 Categorizing marine eutrophication.................................................213
5.2.4 Predicting eutrophication effects......................................................232
5.3 Political developments.............................................................................237
5.3.1 The North Sea Conferences..............................................................237
5.3.2 The OSPAR Convention..................................................................240
5.3.3 The European Union........................................................................242
5.4 Summary and conclusions.......................................................................247
5.4.1 New knowledge, justification and uncertainty.................................248
5.4.2 New knowledge and implementation...............................................248
5.4.3 The science-policy interface.............................................................254
5.4.4 New knowledge and new politics.....................................................255
6 Summary, discussion and conclusions..........................................................257
6.1 Marine eutrophication in perspective.......................................................258
6.1.1 The temporal aspect..........................................................................258
6.1.2 The structural aspect.........................................................................260
6.1.3 The normative aspect........................................................................263
6.2 The discrepancy between science and politics.........................................266
6.2.1 The discovery phase.........................................................................266
6.2.2 The decision-making phase..............................................................268
6.2.3 The management phase....................................................................272
6.2.4 Comparison with other cases............................................................276
6.3 The future of rational policy-making.......................................................278
6.3.1 From normal to post-normal science................................................279
6.3.2 Marine eutrophication policies and policy-related science...............282
References..........................................................................................................289
Annex 1...............................................................................................................311
