Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry [Deriv. of Encyc. of Ocean Scis.]

642 Pages·21.969 MB·English

by  J. Steele, et. al.

Marine Chemistry & Geochemistry
Editor-in-Chief
John H. Steele
Marine Policy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
Massachusetts, USA
Editors
Steve A. Thorpe
National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton,
Southampton, UK
School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, Anglesey, UK
Karl K. Turekian
Yale University, Department of Geology and Geophysics, New Haven,
Connecticut, USA
Subject Area Volumes from the Second Edition
Climate & Oceans edited by Karl K. Turekian
Elements of Physical Oceanography edited by Steve A. Thorpe
Marine Biology edited by John H. Steele
Marine Chemistry & Geochemistry edited by Karl K. Turekian
Marine Ecological Processes edited by John H. Steele
Marine Geology & Geophysics edited by Karl K. Turekian
Marine Policy & Economics guest edited by Porter Hoagland, Marine Policy Center,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
Measurement Techniques, Sensors & Platforms edited by Steve A. Thorpe
Ocean Currents edited by Steve A. Thorpe
The Coastal Ocean edited by Karl K. Turekian
The Upper Ocean edited by Steve A. Thorpe

MARINE CHEMISTRY &
GEOCHEMISTRY
A DERIVATIVE OF ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
OCEAN SCIENCES, 2ND EDITION
Editor
KARL K. TUREKIAN
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TraceElementNutrients
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10 11 12 13 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry: Introduction ix
CHEMISTRY OF SEA WATER
Origin of the Oceans K K Turekian 3
w
Elemental Distribution: Overview Y Nozaki 7
Conservative Elements D W Dyrssen 13
Trace Element Nutrients W G Sunda 17
Platinum Group Elements and their Isotopes in the Ocean G E Ravizza 29
w
Rare Earth Elements and their Isotopes in the Ocean Y Nozaki 39
Refractory Metals K J Orians, C L Merrin 52
Metalloids and Oxyanions G A Cutter 64
Transition Metals and Heavy Metal Speciation J Donat, C Dryden 72
Hydrothermal Vent Fluids, Chemistry of K LVon Damm 81
Photochemical Processes N V Blough 89
Iron Fertilization K H Coale 100
Marine Chemical and Medicine Resources S Ali, C Llewellyn 112
TRACERS IN THE SEA
Long-Term Tracer Changes F von Blanckenburg 123
Noble Gases and the Cryosphere M Hood 135
Tritium–Helium Dating W J Jenkins 139
Volcanic Helium J E Lupton 147
CFCs in the Ocean R A Fine 155
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons J W Farrington 163
Tracer Release Experiments A J Watson, J R Ledwell 175
Tracers of Ocean Productivity W J Jenkins 181
Inverse Modeling of Tracers and Nutrients R Schlitzer 188
NATURAL RADIOACTIVE SPECIES
Uranium-Thorium Decay Series in the Oceans: Overview M M R van der Loeff 203
Uranium-Thorium Series Isotopes in Ocean Profiles S Krishnaswami 214
Cosmogenic Isotopes D Lal 225
wDeceased.
v
vi CONTENTS
Radiocarbon R M Key 235
Single Compound Radiocarbon Measurements T I Eglinton, A Pearson 251
POLLUTION OF THE OCEANS
Global Marine Pollution A D Mclntyre 263
Metal Pollution G E Millward, ATurner 265
Anthropogenic Trace Elements in the Ocean E A Boyle 273
Atmospheric Input of Pollutants R A Duce 281
Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing and Related Discharges H N Edmonds 291
Radioactive Wastes L Føyn 298
Hypoxia N N Rabalais 306
Carbon Sequestration via Direct Injection into the Ocean E E Adams, K Caldeira 315
MARINE DEPOSITS
Authigenic Deposits G M McMurtry 325
Calcium Carbonates L C Peterson 336
Clay Mineralogy H Chamley 346
Mid-Ocean Ridge Geochemistry and Petrology M R Perfit 355
Manganese Nodules D S Cronan 366
Hydrothermal Vent Deposits R M Haymon 374
Pore Water Chemistry D Hammond 381
Benthic Foraminifera A J Gooday 390
Coccolithophores T Tyrrell, J RYoung 402
Cenozoic Climate – Oxygen Isotope Evidence J D Wright 411
Past Climate from Corals A G Grottoli 423
Plio-Pleistocene Glacial Cycles and Milankovitch Variability K H Nisancioglu 433
COASTAL OCEAN
Chemical Processes in Estuarine Sediments W R Martin 445
River Inputs J D Milliman 457
Groundwater Flow to the Coastal Ocean A E Mulligan, M A Charette 465
Gas Exchange in Estuaries M I Scranton, M A de Angelis 475
CYCLES OF THE NUCLIDES
Land–Sea Global Transfers F T Mackenzie, L M Ver 485
Carbon Cycle C A Carlson, N R Bates, D A Hansell, D K Steinberg 495
Carbon Dioxide (CO ) Cycle T Takahashi 505
2
Ocean Carbon System, Modeling of S C Doney, D M Glover 513
CONTENTS vii
Cenozoic Oceans – Carbon Cycle Models L Franc¸ois, Y Godde´ris 523
Marine Silica Cycle D J DeMaster 533
Nitrogen Cycle D M Karl, A F Michaels 541
Nitrogen Isotopes in the Ocean D M Sigman, K L Karsh, K L Casciotti 549
Oxygen Isotopes in the Ocean K K Turekian 564
Stable Carbon Isotope Variations in the Ocean K K Turekian 566
Phosphorus Cycle K C Ruttenberg 567
AIR SEA EXCHANGES
Air–Sea Transfer: Dimethyl Sulfide, COS, CS , NH , Non-methane Hydrocarbons,
2 4
Organo-halogens J W Dacey, H J Zemmelink 583
Air–Sea Transfer: N O, NO, CH , CO C S Law 589
2 4
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Periodic Table of the Elements 599
Appendix 2: The Geologic Time Scale 600
Appendix 3: Estimated Mean Oceanic Concentrations of the Elements 601
INDEX 605

INTRODUCTION: MARINE CHEMISTRY AND
GEOCHEMISTRY
The field of marine chemistry and geochemistry has developed dramatically since the end of World War II.
Mainlythisspurtofrefinementwastheconsequenceofthedevelopmentofnoveltechniquesofmeasurement
of both radioactive and radiogenic isotopes as well as the light stable isotopes. These new approaches were
accompanied by the refinement of elemental analytical techniques for the determination of element con-
centrations, resulting in large part from the war effort.
Thesaltinessoftheoceanswaswellknownfromancienttimesandsaltwasusedfordomesticuses.Butthe
majorcompositionofseawaterwasyettobedetermined.Asearlyas1820WilliamWollaston,thediscoverer
ofpalladiumandrhodium,predictedthepresenceofpotassiuminseawaterandthenproceededtodetermine
its concentration using gravimetric analytical techniques, based on the newly discovered platinum group
elements and the formation of potassium-platinum compounds.
Both deep sea deposits and sea water were sampled first by the Challenger expedition (1872–1876).
William Dittmar analyzed sea water from around the oceans collected by the Challenger expedition and
showed the composition was fairly constant so far as the major components of the dissolved salts were
concerned.
Over the past 60 years refined techniques of analysis have shown the patterns of distribution of the trace
elementsinoceanwaterprofilesinalltheoceans.TheseresultsaresummarizedbythelateYoshiyukiNozaki
in this volume. Similarly the understanding of the stable isotopes of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen in the
oceanshaveplayedimportantrolesindecipheringboththeancienttemperaturehistoryoftheoceansandthe
biological pathways of nutrient elements in the marine system.
The carbon system, tracked by radiocarbon has important consequences for both the study of ocean
circulation and the ultimate fate of anthropogenically released carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Otherformsofpollutionareimpactingtheoceansresultinginenhancedanoxiaespeciallyinsomecoastal
zones.Theimpactoftracemetalsfromanthropogenicsourcesprovidebothtracersandinsomecaseshealth
hazards for those relying on marine resources.
Someanthropogenicallyintroducedradionuclidesandsyntheticcompoundsareusefulasoceancirculation
tracers. These include tritium, bomb radiocarbon and CFCs.
Theroleofhydrothermalventsinmodifyingthecompositionofseawater,aswellasaddingtodepositson
the sea floor, has been explored since the 1970s.Especially the role of the high temperature reactions of sea
water and hot basaltic rock have been shown to influence not only the chemistry of sea water but also the
isotopic composition of oxygen as well as certain other isotope systems.
Extensive sampling of the oceans and the sediment piles provide information on nutrient cycling and the
historyofclimate.TheseveralorganizedeffortsintheseareasstartingwithGEOSECS(GeochemicalOcean
SectionStudies)andtheOceanDrillingProgramhaveexpandedourknowledgeofhowtheoceancirculates
andthereactivityofbiologicalandotherparticlesintheoceancolumnaswellasthelong-termhistoryofthe
oceans. There are clearly secrets yet to be revealed using these methods of exploration.
Karl K. Turekian
Editor
ix