Marine Bivalve Molluscs

537 Pages·2015·23 MB·English

by  Elizabeth Gosling

Marine Bivalve Molluscs

Marine Bivalve Molluscs
Second Edition
Elizabeth Gosling
This edition first published 2015 © 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
First edition published 2003 © Fishing News Books, a division of Blackwell Publishing
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Offices
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030‐5774, USA
For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about
how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website
at www.wiley.com/wiley‐blackwell.
The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by
the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names
and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in
preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness
of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for
a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional
services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional
advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication data applied for
ISBN: 9780470674949
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be
available in electronic books.
Cover image: (Scallop background) iStockphoto © DHuss
(Oyster opening) iStockphoto © Riorita
(Rough cockle sea shell out of its armor) iStockphoto © xbrchx
(Other images) Courtesy of the author
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
1 2015
Contents
Preface viii
Acknowledgements x
1 Phylogeny and evolution of bivalve molluscs 1
Phylogeny of the Mollusca 1
Phylogeny and evolution of Bivalvia 3
Evolution and adaptive radiation in Bivalvia 7
Notes 10
References 10
2 Morphology of bivalves 12
Introduction 12
Shell 12
Mantle 21
Gills 24
The foot 27
Labial palps and alimentary canal 31
Gonads 34
Heart and haemolymph vessels 34
Excretory organs 35
Nerves and sensory receptors 36
References 38
3 Ecology of bivalves 44
Introduction 44
Global and local distribution patterns 44
Factors affecting geographic distribution 52
Factors affecting local distribution 55
Climate change 78
Note 84
References 84
4 How bivalves feed 99
Introduction 99
Filtration rate 100
Particle processing on the gills, labial palps and in the stomach 110
The alimentary canal and digestive process 128
Absorption efficiency 139
Effects of bivalve suspension‐feeders on the ecosystem 141
Notes 144
References 144
vi Contents
5 Reproduction, settlement and recruitment 157
Introduction 157
Sexuality 157
Gametogenesis 159
Reproductive cycles 159
Factors controlling reproduction 165
Annual storage cycle 170
Reproductive effort and fecundity 171
Deleterious effects on the reproductive cycle 175
Fertilization 175
Larval development 177
Factors affecting larval growth 178
Larval dispersal and population connectivity 181
Larval identification and abundance estimation 184
Settlement, metamorphosis and post‐larval dispersal 185
References 189
6 Growth 203
Introduction 203
Methods of measuring absolute growth 203
Allometric growth 213
Scope for growth and dynamic energy budget models 216
Factors affecting growth 219
Note 232
References 232
7 Circulation, respiration, excretion and osmoregulation 243
Circulation 243
Respiration 246
Excretion and osmoregulation 260
Note 264
References 264
8 Fisheries and management of natural populations 270
Introduction 270
Population dynamics 271
Fisheries assessment and management 282
Scallop fisheries 287
Oyster fisheries 301
Mussel fisheries 309
Clam fisheries 314
References 319
9 Bivalve culture 325
Introduction 325
Fundamentals of bivalve culture 326
Mussel culture 340
Oyster culture 348
Scallop culture 355
Clam culture 362
Contents vii
Bivalve culture and the environment 369
Ecosystem approach to bivalve culture 371
Note 374
References 375
10 Genetics in aquaculture 383
Introduction 383
Quantitative genetics 384
Selective breeding 386
Protein and DNA markers 394
Bivalve genomics 403
Chromosomal genetics and ploidy manipulation 408
Transgenics 417
Notes 419
References 419
11 Diseases and parasites 429
Introduction 429
Viruses 429
Bacteria 431
Fungi 434
Protistans 434
Porifera 447
Helminths 448
Annelids 451
Crustaceans 452
Neoplasia 454
Defence mechanisms 455
Perspectives 463
References 464
12 Public health 478
Introduction 478
Bacterial infections 478
Viral infections 480
Biotoxins 481
Industrial pollutants 488
Controls on the production and processing of bivalves 490
Elimination of pathogens and other hazards 495
Monitoring and quality control 499
HAACP system 502
Notes 508
References 508
Subject index 514
Species index 520
Preface
The phylum Mollusca is one of the largest, most diverse and important groups in the animal
kingdom. There are at least 50 000 described species, and about 30 000 of these are found in
the sea. The class Bivalvia is one of the eight classes of molluscs and comprises animals
enclosed in two shell valves. Examples are mussels, oysters, scallops and clams. Although
this class contains a relatively small number of species, about 10 000, it elicits substantial
interest chiefly because these species are widely consumed by people. In 2011, production
of marine bivalves from fisheries and aquaculture was almost 14 million metric tonnes
worldwide with more than 90% of this figure coming from aquaculture.
Some years ago while teaching a course on bivalve biology to aquaculture students, I
realized that although the students could access much relevant information from several
texts, a single book covering all aspects of the biology, ecology and culture of bivalve
molluscs did not exist. Thus the idea to write such a book was conceived. What started off
as a small undertaking very quickly snowballed into a substantial task, which took several
years to complete, primarily due to my having to read and digest the wealth of published
information. The first edition of Bivalve Molluscs, published in 2003, was very well received
by reviewers, did well in terms of sales, and in 2011 Wiley‐Blackwell invited me to prepare
a second edition.
In the intervening years, there have been many significant advances, along with the
emergence of new areas of research, one reason being the range of new techniques being
applied in bivalve biology and ecology. For example, DNA genetic markers play an increas-
ingly important role in disease diagnosis (Chapter 11), identification and tagging of larvae
(Chapters 5 and 10), in detecting different strains of pathogenic bacteria (Chapter 12), and
in the completely new area of bivalve genomics (Chapter 10). Also, isotope ratios and fatty
acid signatures are being used to identify dietary food sources in bivalves (Chapter 4), while
measurements of stable oxygen isotopes in fossil and contemporary bivalve shells are
allowing reconstruction of past sea surface temperatures. Trace elemental fingerprinting,
based on naturally occurring elements in bivalve shells, is being used to assess larval origins
and trajectories, while fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) combined with cell sorting
can identify and rapidly count and sort larvae of several bivalve species in diverse plankton
samples (Chapter 5). Immunosensors – devices that use specific biochemical reactions
mediated by antibodies to detect chemical compounds – may soon replace liquid
chromatography, which has long been the official method for detection and quantification of
algal toxins in shellfish (Chapter 12).
Another significant development has been the increasing use of sophisticated mathematical
models to describe and predict growth and bioenergetics of individual animals (Chapters 4
and 6), to track larval movement and recruitment (Chapter 5) and to predict geographic
range of species in global warming scenarios (Chapter 3). Models are also being employed
to simulate disease and forecast outbreaks (Chapters 11 and 12), to describe carrying capac-
ity and environmental effects in aquaculture areas (Chapter 9). Also, several model‐based
approaches are in use to assess fisheries stocks (Chapter 8).