Table Of ContentMarco Polo Was in China
Monies, Markets, and Finance
in East Asia, 1600–1900
Edited by
Hans Ulrich Vogel
VOLUME 2
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/mmf
Marco Polo Was in China
New Evidence from Currencies,
Salts and Revenues
By
Hans Ulrich Vogel
LEidEN • bOStON
2013
Cover illustration: detail from tranquillo Cremona (1837–1878), Marco Polo davanti al Gran Khan
dei Tartari, 1863. For the complete picture see Fig. 34 in this book. the illustration was provided
by Photoservice Electa/anelli by courtesy of Ministro per i beni e le Attività Culturali and Galleria
Nazionale d’Arte Moderna, Rome.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
Vogel, Hans Ulrich.
Marco Polo was in China : new evidence from currencies, salts and revenues / by Hans Ulrich
Vogel.
p. cm. — (Monies, markets, and finance in East Asia, 1600–1900, iSSN 2210–2876 ; v. 2)
includes bibliographical references and index.
iSbN 978-90-04-23193-1 (hbk. : alk. paper) — iSbN 978-90-04-23698-1 (e-book)
1. Money—China—History 2. taxation—China—History. 3. Salt—taxation—China—History.
4. Polo, Marco, 1254–1324 i. title.
HG1282.V64 2013
332.4’51—dc23
2012035046
this publication has been typeset in the multilingual “brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters
covering Latin, iPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the
humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface.
iSSN 2210-2876
iSbN 978-90-04-23193-1 (hardback)
iSbN 978-90-04-23698-1 (e-book)
Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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idC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
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this book is printed on acid-free paper.
this book is dedicated
to
my wife
beatriz Puente-ballesteros
medical doctor and historian of intercivilisational encounters in medicine
between Jesuits, Chinese and Manchus
for her love, encouragement and support
and
in memory of
Herbert Franke (1914–2011)
the great German sinologist and specialist on Yuan economic,
social, political and cultural history
CONtENtS
List of Figures, Maps and tables ................................................................ xi
Preface from Mark Elvin ............................................................................... xvii
Préface de Philippe Ménard ........................................................................ xxi
Preface from the Author ............................................................................... xxiii
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................... xxvii
transliteration and Conventions ............................................................... xxxi
i. introduction .............................................................................................. 1
1. Structure and Contents of this book .......................................... 2
2. Approaches and Methods .............................................................. 8
3. Cons and Pros for Marco Polo’s Stay in China ........................ 11
3.1. Authorship of the book ....................................................... 14
3.2. Complexities of Manuscript transmission ................... 17
3.3. N ature, Style, intentions and Receptions of the
book .......................................................................................... 22
3.4. itinerary and data ................................................................. 36
3.5. Persian Rendering of Chinese Place Names ................. 39
3.6. A spects of Chinese and Mongol Civilization and
Culture ...................................................................................... 43
3.7. “Latins” at Khubilai’s Court ................................................ 67
3.8. Participation in the Xiangyang Siege .............................. 67
3.9. Governorship in Yangzhou ................................................ 68
3.10. Missions of the Polos ........................................................... 69
3.11. the Polos and Chinese Sources ........................................ 74
3.12. Return from China ................................................................ 80
3.13. Golden tablets of Authority .............................................. 84
ii. Paper Money in Yuan China ............................................................... 89
1. Marco Polo on Yuan Paper Money (1275–1291) ................... 106
2. O ther Western, Persian and Arabic Mediaeval Authors
on Yuan Paper Money ..................................................................... 109
3. the Short-lived issue of Yuan-style Paper Money in Persia
in 1294 ................................................................................................. 113
viii contents
4. Chinese Sources on Paper Money during the Yuan Period
(1271–1368) ....................................................................................... 118
4.1. Aspects of Production ............................................................ 120
4.2. Aspects of Circulation ............................................................ 159
5. Yuan Paper Money: Comparing Marco Polo’s Account
and Chinese Sources ........................................................................ 212
iii. Cowry Monies Circulating in Yunnan and Southeast Asia ........ 227
1. Marco Polo on Cowry Currencies (1275–1291) ..................... 230
2. Chinese Sources on Yunnan Cowry Currencies during the
Yuan Period (1271–1368) .............................................................. 234
2.1. Exchange Rates ........................................................................ 236
2.2. denominations ......................................................................... 238
2.3. Cowry imports .......................................................................... 239
2.4. Cowry Currency in Private transactions ......................... 258
2.5. Cowry Money in Public Revenue and Finance .............. 262
3. Yunnan Cowry Currencies: Comparing Marco Polo’s
Account and Chinese Sources ....................................................... 267
iV. Salt Production and Salt Monies in Yunnan and Tebet ............. 271
1. Marco Polo on Salt Production in Yunnan (1275–1291) ... 272
2. Marco Polo on Salt Currencies in Tebet and Caindu
(1275–1291) ...................................................................................... 285
3. Chinese Sources on Salt Currencies (Late Eighth to
Mid-twentieth Centuries) ............................................................. 297
3.1. Nanzhao Kingdom (Late Eighth Century) ...................... 298
3.2. Yuan Period (Early Fourteenth Century) ........................ 299
3.3. Ming Period (Mid-Fifteenth Century) .............................. 299
3.4. Qing Period (Eighteenth to Nineteenth Centuries) ..... 301
3.5. Republican Period (Mid-1930s) ......................................... 307
3.6. People’s Republic of China (1950s) .................................. 307
4. Salt Forms Produced by Yunnan Saltworks
(Early Eighteenth Century) ........................................................... 309
4.1. dry-boiled Salt Forms ........................................................... 311
4.2. Salt Forms Made by Hand or Moulds .............................. 312
5. Salt Currencies: Comparing Marco Polo’s Perceptions and
Chinese Sources ............................................................................... 315
5.1. Weight of Salt Currencies .................................................... 315
5.2. Value of Salt Currencies ....................................................... 317
contents ix
5.3. Salt Prices in Caindu and Other Regions of China ...... 318
5.4. Circulation and Monetary Functions of Salt
Currencies ................................................................................. 324
5.5. Salt Monies, Governments and Markets ......................... 328
V. Production, Revenue and trade of Salt in Changlu
and Lianghuai ......................................................................................... 331
1. Marco Polo on Salt Production techniques in Changlu ..... 332
2. M arco Polo on the Salt Production and distribution Zone
of Lianghuai ....................................................................................... 339
3. did Marco Polo Hold an Office in Yangzhou? ........................ 348
Vi. tax Revenue of Hangzhou and its territory .................................. 365
1. Marco Polo’s Millions: the Salt tax Revenue ......................... 366
2. total Annual Revenue as Reported by the Venetian ........... 379
3. Commercial taxes in Le devisament dou monde .................... 391
4. Marco Polo on Levies in Overseas trade in Quanzhou ....... 394
Vii. Administrative-Geographical divisions in Yuan China ........... 399
Viii. Conclusions ............................................................................................ 419
Appendices
Appendix 1: Compilation of Passages on the Production and Use
of Paper Money in the Yuan Empire from Selected Manuscript
and Print Versions of Marco Polo’s Account ..................................... 429
Appendix 2: Compilation of Passages on the Production and Use
of Chinese Paper Money and Salt Revenue in the Accounts
of Other Western, Persian and Arabic Authors ................................ 439
Appendix 3: Coins of Venice ....................................................................... 471
Appendix 4: the Weight Measures libbra and saggio of Venice ..... 474
Appendix 5: the Weight of the miskal .................................................... 475
Appendix 6: Relationship between the Persian System of balish,
sum and miskal, the Chinese System of ding, liang and qian,
and Marco Polo’s saggi and grossi ....................................................... 477
Appendix 7: Compilation of Passages on Chinese Salt Money, Salt
Production and Salt Revenue from the Most important
Manuscript and Print Versions of Marco Polo’s Account ............. 491
Appendix 8: tables 3 and 27 ...................................................................... 529
x contents
bibliography
1. Marco Polo Editions ............................................................................ 547
2. Other Primary Sources ....................................................................... 554
3. Secondary Literature ........................................................................... 562
index ................................................................................................................... 629
