Table Of ContentChristoph Zinner · Billy Sperlich Editors
Marathon Running:
Physiology,
Psychology, Nutrition
and Training Aspects
Marathon Running: Physiology, Psychology,
Nutrition and Training Aspects
Christoph Zinner Billy Sperlich
(cid:129)
Editors
Marathon Running:
Physiology, Psychology,
Nutrition and Training
Aspects
123
Editors
Christoph Zinner Billy Sperlich
Department ofSport Science Department ofSport Science
Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg
Würzburg, Bayern Würzburg, Bayern
Germany Germany
ISBN978-3-319-29726-2 ISBN978-3-319-29728-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29728-6
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016930543
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Contents
1 Physiological Aspects of Marathon Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Billy Sperlich
2 Biomechanics of Marathon Running. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Thomas Stöggl and Tobias Wunsch
3 Nutrition for Marathon Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Karsten Koehler
4 Thermoregulation During Marathon Running. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Oliver Faude and Lars Donath
5 Coping with Stress During a Marathon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Christian Zepp
6 Motivation and Marathon Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Chris Hammer and Leslie Podlog
7 Marathon Training: Gender and Age Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Jennifer L. Reed and Jenna C. Gibbs
8 Training Aspects of Marathon Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Christoph Zinner
v
Chapter 1
Physiological Aspects of Marathon
Running
Billy Sperlich
Abstract Marathon running has evolved as one of the world’s popular running
experiences. Independent of the runner’s performance level the marathon event
represent a major challenge to the runner’s biology. Multiple integrated physio-
logical processes operate to resist fatigue during marathon running. The physical
preparation for a marathon involves a series of complex biological adaptations to
counteract exercise induced fatigue. The following chapter aims at describing
important physiological components that are proposed to constrain a champion’s
physiological capacity for ultimate endurance performance. Further, potential
limiting factors of the lungs, cardio-vascular system, blood oxygen carrying
capacity,musclepropertiesandmetabolismareexplainedinordertounderstandthe
underlying mechanisms for developing specific training methods and to estimate
theracepaceduringmarathonrunning.Otherimportantbiologicalaspectsinvolved
in marathon running such as nutrition, thermoregulation, biomechanics will be
discusses in detail in the following chapters.
(cid:1) (cid:1) (cid:1)
Keywords Marathon Oxygen uptake Central limitations Pulmonary diffu-
(cid:1) (cid:1) (cid:1) (cid:1)
sion Blood oxygen carrying capacity Muscle adaptation Lactate threshold
(cid:1) (cid:1)
Substrate regulation Running Running economy
1.1 Introduction
The question, “the two-hour marathon: who and when?” (Joyner et al. 2011) was
mentionedin2011,initiatingalivelydebateaboutwho,how,andwhenanexciting
barrier of human performance would be broken. The query instigated a search to
identify an outstanding human with extraordinary physiological and mental
stamina.
B.Sperlich(&)
DepartmentofSportScience-IntegrativeandExperimentalTrainingScience,Julius
MaximiliansUniversityWürzburg,Judenbühlweg11,97082Würzburg,Germany
e-mail:[email protected]
©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2016 1
C.ZinnerandB.Sperlich(eds.),MarathonRunning:Physiology,Psychology,
NutritionandTrainingAspects,DOI10.1007/978-3-319-29728-6_1
2 B.Sperlich
During marathon running and prolonged endurance exercise, perceptions of
mentalandmuscularfatigueeventuallyoccuraccompaniedbyadeclineinmuscular
performance (Kay et al. 2001; Green 1997; Kay and Marino 2000; Wilmore and
Costill 1999; Millet et al. 2000, 2002; Pinniger et al. 2000; Gibson et al. 2001). To
date several cognitive, bio-chemical and mechanical models have been proposed to
explaintheprocessoffatigue(Noakes2000,2007;Hampsonetal.2001;Hunteretal.
2003).However,thefatigue-relatedprocessisacomplexinterplayofneuro-humoral,
metabolic,cardio-vascularandcognitivefactors.Ithasbeensuggestedthattheaction
of a central (brain-derived) neural regulator controls marathon performance in
anticipation to avoid physical harm (Noakes 2007). This constellation of factors
appears highly individual and remains under investigation (Bouchard et al. 1986).
Thementalandphysicalfatigueoccurringduringmarathoneventuallydefinesthe
velocity achieved during marathon running. To date numerous physiological and
mental components limiting the performance during marathon have been identified.
So far, three important physiological components are proposed to constrain a
champion’s physiological capacity for ultimate endurance performance. These
componentsinclude:theinvolvementofaerobicandanaerobicenergyproduction—
as reflected by the runner’s peak oxygen uptake (V_O ), velocity at lactate
2peak
threshold (v ), and running economy (RE) (Joyner and Coyle 2008). More than
LT
70%oftheinter-individualvarianceinlong-distancerunninghasbeenattributedto
_
VO , lactate threshold, and running economy (di Prampero et al. 1986) and
2peak
together, can to a great extent, explain variation in marathon performance (Sjodin
and Svedenhag 1985).
Of course, other factors such as climate, nutrition, mental stamina, and moti-
vation also significantly affect marathon performance (Fig. 1.1 for more details).
Forthisreason,wehavededicatedseparatechapterstoeachoftheaforementioned
aspects of marathon science.
Itiswellknownthataerobicmetabolism dependshighlyonoxygenavailability
of contracting muscle cells dictated by central (cardio-respiratory and hemody-
namic) and peripheral (oxygen extraction) processes (Bassett and Howley 2000).
_
AsubstantialbodyofevidencehasshowntheVO tobeoneofthemostsalient
2peak
_
predictors of endurance performance since (i) VO determines the upper limit
2peak
for endurance performance (i.e., a runner cannot sustain exercise above 100 %
_
VO forprolongedbouts)(Bassett2002)and(ii)thereexistsastrongcorrelation
2peak
_
between VO and performance during a long distance run (Costill 1970).
2peak
However, significant variations in V_O have been observed among runners
2peak
with a similar level of performance, indicating that other components play an
important role in inter-individual performance variability. From a physiological
standpoint,theoxygencostofrunning(expressedasoxygenuptakeatsubmaximal
running), and lactate threshold are additional factors effecting marathon perfor-
mance.Basically,V_O andlactatethresholddefinethedurationthataerobicand
2peak
anaerobic processes can be maintained, while the runner’s economy regulates
marathon velocity for a given amount of energy consumption.
1 PhysiologicalAspectsofMarathonRunning 3
Central governing processes
Mental aspects
Brain function
Experience
Cerebral oxygenation
Self-optimizedpacing
General factors limiting marathon performance
Genetics AmbAiemnbt iteenmt ppeOra2ture Health Status Maratphroonfi lceourse Nut&rition Age
Gender & humidity Training Status Hydration
Biological factors limiting marathon performance
Pulmonaryvascularresistance Muscle Mass
Cardiac Output Peak Heart Rate
Pulmonary Transit Time Lowerbodyflexibility
Pulmonary Diffusion Peak Muscle Blood Flow Capillary Density Biomechanics
Respiratorymusclework Motor Unit Recruitment &
Peripheral O2Diffusion Properties
Plasma Volume Muscle Damage
Thermoregulation
Blood Volume
Hydration status Skeletalenzymeactivity Mitochondrial Density
Cell Volume
Aerobic & Anaerobic metabolism Fat & carbohydrate fueling
[Hb]
Gastrointestinal function
Key physiological elements
Marathon Pace
maximum oxygen uptake Velocity at lactate threshold Running economy
Fig.1.1 Physiologicalandmentalcomponentslimitingtheperformanceduringmarathon(please
notethelistmaynotbeexhaustive)
1.2 Oxygen Uptake During Marathon Running
A runner’s V_O is defined as the maximum amount of oxygen taken up and
2peak
consumedbyalltissueduringexhaustiveexercise(BassettandHowley2000).The
V_O consists primarily—although not exclusively—of the ability
2peak
(i) to transport large amounts of blood (i.e. high cardiac output and total body
hemoglobin),
(ii) to distribute blood (i.e. by muscle blood flow) and
(iii) to extract and utilize oxygen within the muscle cell.
(BassettandHowley2000;JoynerandCoyle2008).Thebiologicaladaptationfrom
long distance running allows an athlete to run a marathon at approximately 75–
_
85%ofVO (JoynerandCoyle2008;BassettandHowley2000).Incontrasta
2peak
5and10-kmrunwillbeperformedat90–100%V_O explainingwhymarathon
2peak
_
runners,whencomparedtomiddle-distancerunners,possessalowerVO .Male
2peak
_
world-classmarathonrunnersholdaVO of>80ml/min/kgandfemalerunners
2peak
of >75 ml/min/kg.
4 B.Sperlich
_
1.3 Central Limitations to VO
2peak
_
TheprimarylimitingfactorsofVO arerelatedtocardiacdimension,pulmonary
2peak
diffusion and blood oxygen carrying capacity (Green et al. 1987, 1990).
1.3.1 Cardiac Dimensions
Endurance exercise provokes morphological, regulatory, and functional adaptation
of the runner’s heart (Pavlik et al. 2013). It is well known that endurance athletes’
hearts adapt to training with a reduction in their rate at rest (resting bradycardia)
resultinginheartrates<50bpm(UnderwoodandSchwade1977).Suchareduction
is due to enhanced parasympathetic and reduced sympathetic activity. The reduc-
tioninrestingheartratefollowingendurancetrainingallowsathletes’toperformat
a lower heart rate with equal running velocity compared to pre-training.
Recreational endurance exercise produces a global cardiac enlargement, poten-
tially increasing dimensions of all cardiac chambers but rarely produce left ven-
tricular wall thickness greater than normal (Thompson2007).However,inathletes
performingextremeendurancedisciplinessuchasultra-runners,cardiacdimensions
—especially chamber size and wall thickness (left ventricle internal dimensions,
intraventricular septum thickness, posterior wall thickness)—may be significantly
enlarged beyond normal (Nagashima et al. 2003; Thompson 2007).
Theinter-individualdifferenceinpeakstrokevolume(volumeofbloodexpelledby
theheartperbeat)explainsmostofthevarianceinrunners’V_O .Itisnoteworthy,
2peak
thatthepeakvaluesofheartratearelimitedanddeclinewithage,butstrokevolume
increases substantially especially with high-intensity exercise (Helgerud et al.
2007).
1.3.2 Pulmonary Diffusion
At sea level, pulmonary diffusion may limit performance, since in some cases, the
ability of the pulmonary system to oxygenate blood may be insufficient (Dempsey
et al. 1984; Powers et al. 1985). The runner’s large cardiac output, that is, the
volume of blood being pumped over time, permits the transportation of greater
amounts of blood volume per heartbeat. The large blood transport however, may
notallowthelungstofullysaturate hemoglobinwithoxygensincethetransittime
of the blood within the lungs may be too short. Thus, well-trained athletes with
largecardiacdimensionsmayshowsignsof“exercise-inducedarterialhypoxemia”
(Dempsey et al. 1984), especially when commencing heavy exercise.
1 PhysiologicalAspectsofMarathonRunning 5
1.3.3 Blood Oxygen Carrying Capacity
At the commencement of (endurance) exercise, the vascular system reallocates blood
flow(within andbetween muscles)tometabolicallyactive skeletalmuscles,to ensure
optimalO -extraction.Increasedbloodallocationtothemusclesisprimarilyachieved
2
by elevated blood volume and red blood cells. Low-intensity endurance exercise has
been shown to improve plasma volume (Green et al. 1987) and muscle blood flow
(Coyle 1999) within a relatively short time period (after approximately 3 days of
training (Green et al. 1987)), however a greater amount of exercise is necessary (ap-
proximately3–5weekswith3–5sessions/week)tofurtherincreaseV_O (Hickson
2peak
et al.1981) and capillary-andmitochondrial density (Hoppeler and Weibel2000).
Reduced blood volume due to dehydration may compromise heat loss and
improve thermal strain in marathon runners (Cheuvront and Haymes 2001).
Remainingwellhydratedduringmarathon(especiallywhenperformingintheheat)
is (i) essential for optimal temperature regulation and (ii) upholds blood pressure
and cardiac output for proper oxygen transport.
Altogether,theoxygendeliverytotheexercisingmusclesmaybelimitedbythe
aforementioned central factors however, several peripheral factors may also mini-
mize endurance performance.
_
1.4 Peripheral Limitations to VO
2peak
Itiswelldocumentedthatmitochondriaenzymeactivityaswellascapillarydensity
limit peripheral O -utilization. Furthermore, the increase of enzymes as well cap-
2
illaries improves peak oxygen uptake (Pringle et al. 2003; Kirkendall and Garrett
1998; Hoppeler and Weibel 2000; Tonkonogi et al. 2000; Bizeau et al. 1998)
resulting in greater muscular oxygen extraction from the blood stream.
Thetrained,incontrasttountrainedmuscle,hasthreetimesgreatercapillarydensity,
threetofourtimesgreateractivityofaerobicenzymes,alargercontentofslowtwitch
fibers(typeI)(Henriksson1992),andmoreefficienttypeI-(Linossieretal.1993)and
II-muscle fibers (Billat 2001). All aforementioned adaptations ultimately allow
improved mitochondria ATP-synthesis leading to postponed onset offatigue.
1.4.1 Muscle Adaptation and Lactate Threshold
The training goal of a marathon runner is to increase the velocity that can be
maintainedover42.195kmbyimproving(i)theefficiencyofbio-chemicalprocess
to transfer chemical into mechanical energy, (ii) biomechanics of locomotion,
(iii) the ability to resist fatigue.
Inenduranceathletes,thevelocityatthelactatethreshold(v )iscloselylinked
LT
to performance (Midgley et al. 2007; Bassett and Howley 2000). As a result, the
