Table Of ContentMAPPING HUMAN AND NATURAL
SYSTEMS
MAPPING
HUMAN AND
NATURAL
SYSTEMS
P B
ETE ETTINGER
WarnellSchoolofForestryandNaturalResources,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,GA,UnitedStates
K M
RISTA ERRY
WarnellSchoolofForestryandNaturalResources,UniversityofGeorgia,Athens,GA,UnitedStates
K B
EVIN OSTON
DepartmentofForestryandWildlandResources,HumboldtStateUniversity,Arcata,CA,UnitedStates
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Dedication
To our parents who always supported and encouraged us.
Contents
Preface ix MapGridsorIndexes 182
ConcludingRemarks 183
1. Maps References 184
MapsasModels 8 5. Map Interpretation
MapsasMemories 14
MapsasInspiration 18 Scale 190
MapsasProducts 21 Elevation 196
ConcludingRemarks 26 Slope 202
References 28 DirectionandOrientation 204
Aspect 206
2. Map Types Relief 207
Distance 209
TraditionalTypesofMaps 34 Area 211
SpecificTypesofMaps 50 Message 213
ConcludingRemarks 86 ConcludingRemarks 215
References 87 References 215
3. Map Components 6. Map Colors
MapTitle 95 ColorModels 221
OrientationoftheLandscape 97 ColorSchemes 234
Scale 102 ColorDistance 241
Symbols 105 ColorOrderSystems 242
Legend 108 ColorPsychology 246
LabelsandTextAnnotation 111 ColorBlindness 247
Insets 113 ConcludingRemarks 250
NeatLine 118 References 251
ReferenceInformation 120
Warranties,Disclaimers,Copyrights,Caveats,and 7. Map Development and
DiscriminationStatements 122 Generalization
Backdrop 126
ConcludingRemarks 127 DrawingaMapbyHand 261
References 128 DevelopingaMapinaGeographicInformation
SystemorOnlineMappingSystem 268
4. Map Reference Systems GeneralizingLandscapeFeatures 273
RenderingDigitalMapsonComputersand
CoordinateSystems 132 Devices 277
Datum 146 ConcludingRemarks 279
MapProjectionSystems 148 References 280
vii
viii
Contents
8. Map Errors MapsinTelevision 318
MapsinMusic 320
CommonTypesofMapErrors 284 MapsinNewsprint 321
ScaleandGeneralizationErrors 292 MapsinMagazinesandBooks 322
MapAccuracy 298 MapsinAdvertising 324
MapStandards 304 MapsonDigitalDevices 326
AssessmentofMappingSkills 308 MapsinVideoGaming 328
ConcludingRemarks 309 ConcludingRemarks 329
References 310 References 330
9. Maps in Popular Culture Index 333
MapsasExpressionsofHumanCondition 315
MapsinCinema 318
Preface
Maps are a creative outcome of questions posed about land, air, water, and even outer
space. Maps help answer questions such as Where is the place of interest? and Where are we
going?, among many other curiosities we may have. Maps help us find our way, help sup-
port our decisions, and help illustrate the condition of human and natural systems.
Arguably, popular interest in maps has never been greater than it is today (Hamerlinck,
2015). Maps can be found nearly everywhere, and they are widely available in paper and
digital formats (Ooms et al., 2016). Although the technology for making maps has changed
considerablyoverthepastfewdecades,thepurposeandprinciplesregardingmapcompo-
nentsandthe interpretation of maps have essentially remained the same.
Our fascination with maps and mapping began some time ago. With the exception of
crude maps drawn in his youthful adventures, Pete Bettinger drew his first real map in
1985. The map had a purpose: to describe the forest resources within a compartment of
land owned by a forestry company in Virginia. Compartments were a term used by his
employer to represent the division of a district (the larger area managed) into relatively
small contiguous areas, containing management units having different forest conditions
(asdescribedby treeage,tree species,etc.).Themap wasdevelopedjust prior tothewide-
spread adoption ofcomputerized mappingand drafting systems by forestry organizations.
Drawn by hand to a specific scale, the map needed to be crafted in a careful, professional
manner, as it would be used by other professionals for at least another 5 or 10 years. For
him, the concepts of map development and interpretation were fostered by both academic
coursework andthese typesof practicalexperiences.
Krista Merry’s grandfather created his own topographic maps from stereo pairs of
aerial photographs captured across the southwestern United States, a mapping skill he
developed while he was in the Air Force. He noted on hand-drawn maps the latitude and
longitude of the landscapes and the locations he photographed over the course of his pro-
fessional photography career. His love of maps sparked Krista’s early interest in geogra-
phy and cartography, and his hobby instilled in her an appreciation of the effort required
to make good maps. She frequently drew maps as a child, including mental maps of loca-
tions across her neighborhood, the location of her house in relation to the location of daily
activities (school, neighborhood pool, friend’s houses), and the perceived shortest route
from one place to another. These maps included arrows identifying steep hills, landmarks,
street names,cul-de-sacs, and generalfootprints ofhouses.Largely, scale wasof no impor-
tance, with trees commonly bigger than houses, but attention was often paid to the accu-
racy of the spatialdistribution of landscapefeatures.
Kevin Boston’s first map illustrated the location of a proposed timber sale on the
Mammoth Ranger District on the Inyo National Forest in California. The purpose of the
map was not only to indicate the location of the potential harvest units, but also the man-
agement prescriptions that might be employed. The map would become part of a contract
ix
x
Preface
s
and was drawn using a specific scale (1:15840). He drew this map on Mylar film, using
drafting pens and basic drafting skills he developed in his forestry surveying classes. The
features on the map included the existing roads and boundaries of the potential harvest
units. Kevin used a series of pen tip sizes to draw features on the map; large width tips
were used for property boundaries, and narrow width tips were used for features such as
roads or streams. Letter guides were also used to create parts of the title, north arrow, leg-
end, and scale bar. He freely admits that developing maps such as these was the most
enjoyable part ofhisjob, as it allowed him to express his creativity.
Certainly, mapping technology has evolved, but perhaps not so much the purpose of
maps. Our fascination with maps continues today, and in developing this book on map-
ping, we make an earnest attempt to present material in an interesting manner that may
engage readers in the art, science, mathematics, and skill of mapping. Some concepts in
our book focus on specific map components or principles of landscape description; how-
ever, we extend the conversation in several areas toward the broader field of geospatial
analyses,or thescienceof where. Not onlydo we hope to build inour readers core mapping
competencies, but we also hope to prompt readers to reflect upon and to synthesize map-
ping concepts, which may encourage personal growth through various explorations of
mapping topics.
We have placed the vast array of topics associated with mapping into nine distinct
chapters, in a manner we feel allows general thoughts regarding maps and mapping pro-
cesses to flow logically. Intermixed within the core content of each chapter are reflections,
diversions, inspections, and translations to encourage curiosity and to help develop creativity
and critical thinking skills. The reflections serve as pauses from the topics at hand, and
they encourage readers to think deeper about mapping ideas or concepts. Usually readers
will be asked to formulate their personal perspectives and thoughts on a subject into a
cohesive, short summary. These exercises are often not directly related to the development
or viewing of a specific map. For example, when discussing map color schemes, we may
ask readers to think about their preferred color combinations for illustrating differences in
human or natural systems. Readers may then be encouraged to describe why they believe
these colors would best communicate amessageto an audience.
Reflection 1
Without using your computer, cellularphone,or other digital device, think about the
last digital map that youused or viewed. In thebackground of themap,do you
recall whether anaerial image,a street map, the topography andbathymetry, or a
more basic landscape canvas was present? Perhaps somecombination of these might
have served as thebackground of themap. Of these options,whichdo yougenerally
preferto becontained in the backgroundof a digital map?
The diversions ask readers to put the book aside and solve a problem. These may be as
simple as short mathematical analyses, or may be as complex as the development of a
map. For example, using a preferred geographic information system, readers may be
asked to develop a map that focuses on the topic within which the diversion was intro-
duced. In some of the diversions, readers will be encouraged to obtain and organize the
necessary data, andultimately develop a map to communicate a certain message.
xi
Preface
Diversion 1
Using Google Earth, navigate to your hometownand focus on (zoom down to)a
familiar area until you are positioned at aneye altitudeof around 1000m (3281ft)
above ground. Examine thelandscape and map features that are visible,given the
databases that have been selected in the Layers window. Now, beginthe process of
printing themap of this area. Aside from what waspresent across thelandscape in
theGoogle Earth window prior to printing themap,whatcomponents have been
added to the map to enhanceits usability?Finally, print themap.
The inspections encourage readers to analyze a map and determine the relative quality of
thatmapwithrespecttothechaptertopicswithinwhicheachinspectionisintroduced.These
activities may seem to overlap slightly with the diversions, yet the main difference is that the
diversions encourage engagement in some part of the map development process or in some
mathematicalcomputation,whereastheinspectionsencourageengagementintheviewingand
interpretation of a completed map. For example, with respect to discussions concerning map
legends,wemaydirectreaderstooneormorespecificmapsavailableviatheInternet.Readers
willtheninspectthelegendsofthesemapsalongwiththetreatmentoflegenditemswithinthe
maps and briefly summarize their thoughts on their technical quality. The inspections may
alsopromptreaderstocompareconceptspresentedinthebookwithreal-worldapplications.
Inspection 1
Considerthe StonewallNationalMonument map (Fig. 1). Where exactly isthe
monument located (city and state)? Further, as you maysee, the NationalMonument
boundaryisrather unique. How would yougenerally describe it, in a few words?
The translations provided throughout the book refer to the potential messages that the
mapdevelopermayhavebeenattemptingtocommunicatethroughtheuseofwords,sym-
bols, or colors. While on the surface, the purpose of a map can be very distinct (a map of
the road system of New York City), other underlying messages may be more subjectively
argued (e.g., some roads are more important than others). For example, the developer of a
map may highlight the outline of an area of perceived importance with the color red. At
least two questions come to mind: why is the area highlighted of importance to the devel-
oper of the map, and why would they use the color red to indicate this fact? Other textual
and symbolic content included in a map may further complement its overall message. The
translation exercises maytherefore helpdeveloporexpand thecognitive skills of readers.
Translation 1
Imagineinthe far lower-left corner of amap,in very smallprint, resides the
following statement:
Thismaphasbeenproducedusinggeospatialinformationcompiledordevelopedby___,which
cannotwarrantitsreliability,accuracy,orsuitabilityforanyparticularpurpose.Thedataemployed
wascompiledfromanumberofdifferentsources,andmayhavebeenupdated,adjusted,orotherwise
modified.Anyharmarisingfromtheuseofthemapissolelytheresponsibilityofthemapuser.
In afew simple words, whatmessageisthe map developer attempting to convey
with this statement?
