Table Of ContentMANPRINT
AN APPROACH TO
SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
MANPRINT
AN APPROACH TO
SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
Edited by
Harold R. Booher
United States Department of the Army
Advisory Board
Bruce A. Braun
Deputy Director, MANPRINT
United States Department of the Army
Paul R. Chatelier
Senior Vice President, Strategic Planning
Perceptronics, Inc.
Andrew P. Sage
Professor and Dean
School of Information Technology and Engineering
George Mason University
Thomas B. Sheridan
Professor of Engineering and Applied Psychology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
James A. Thurber
Professor, School of Government
and Public Administration
The American University
Inm!iI
VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD
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95 96 97 98 99 00 01 QEBKP 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
MANPRINT, an approach to systems integration / edited by Harold R.
Booher.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-13: 978-94-01 0-6680-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-0437-8
001: 10.1007/978-94 -009-0437-8
1. Human engineering. 2. Systems engineering. I. Booher, Harold
R.
T59.7.M34 1990
620.8'2-dc20 90-12016
CIP
CONTENTS
Foreward vii
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xv
Contributors xvii
1 Introduction: The MAN PRINT Philosophy 1
Harold R. Booher
PART I: ORGANIZATION/MANAGEMENT CONTEXT 17
2 Total Quality Management and MANPRINT 21
Harold R. Booher / Keith M. Fender
3 Change Management Process 55
Robert E. Blanchard / William O. Blackwood
4 Management Integration Methods 95
Elliott Mittler / Glen M. Hewitt / Charles A. Vehlow
5 MANPRINT in a Systems Engineering Organization 127
John B. Shafer
PART II: USER-CENTERED DESIGN ADVANCES 157
6 Conceptual System DeSign and the Human Role 161
Harold E. (Smoke) Price
7 Computer-Aided Ergonomic Design Tools 205
Joe W. McDaniel/Mark A. Hofmann
8 Designing for Human Error: Concepts for
Error Tolerant Systems 237
William B. Rouse
9 Workload Assessment and Prediction 257
Sandra G. Hart / Christopher D. Wickens
v
vi CONTENTS
PART III: SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
METHODOLOGIES 297
10 The Acquisition Decision Process 301
Joyce L. Shields / Kenneth M. Johnson / Robert N. Riviello
11 Complex Environment Models in Systems Integration 321
Sam Parry / Dennis D. Collins / Sally J. Van Nostrand
12 MANPRINT Tools and Techniques 343
Harold R. Booher/ Glen M. !-lewitt
13 Integration of Training Systems and Analyses 391
Judy A. Oneal
14 Training and Aiding Personnel in Complex Systems 417
William B. Rouse
15 Practical Human Performance Testing and Evaluation 433
Robert T. Hennessy
PART IV: SOURCES OF USER-CENTERED
TECHNOLOGY 471
16 Human Performance Principles, Data and Data Sources 475
Harold P. Van Cott
1 7 National Human Performance Data Banks 493
Paul M. Haas / Rudy Laine
18 National Education and Training 519
Frederick A. Muckier / Sally A. Seven
19 Meeting the Challenge: Factors in the Design and
Acquisition of Human-Engineered Systems 551
Kenneth R. Boft
CONCLUSION
20 MANPRINT as the Competitive Edge 573
Harold R. Booher / William B. Rouse 575
Author Index 595
Subject Index 605
FOREWORD
PERSPECTIVE
This book is important to everyone concerned with the design and
development of people-oriented systems. The Manpower and Personnel
Integration (MANPRINT) program is a major military system procurement
initiative adopted by the Army to focus on the needs and capabilities of the
soldier. This program is unique in that it integrates six areas of user
concerns which include human factors engineering, manpower, personnel,
training, health hazards, and system safety throughout the development
cycle of Army materiel.
Even though MAN PRINT was developed for Army systems, the
philosophy and techniques used in this program extend well beyond military
systems used by soldiers. It can be applied to all products and systems
used by people such as automobiles, airplanes, boats, control rooms,
automated manufacturing, telecommunications, computers, and medical
equipment.
Interestingly, the impetus for MAN PRINT came from the senior managers
who buy these systems. During the early and mid-1980s, two Army
generals, M. R. Thurman and R. M. Elton, who served successively as the
Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, were instrumental in fostering
MANPRINT development. By the end of the 1980s, this program was
integrated throughout the standard procurement system of the Army. The
formal statement of acquisition policy is contained in Army Regulation 602-2.
Some aspects of the MANPRINT approach have been initiated in each of
the other services and in the Office of the Secretary of Defense. A recent
Department of Defense Directive (Number 5000.53), for example, provides
guidance for all military departments in addressing the domains of
MANPRINT in the system acquisition process. The concepts of MANPRINT
are already spreading to other government agencies (e.g., the Federal
Aviation Administration) and to other countries (e.g., the United Kingdom
and West Germany).
The focus of this book is on the philosophy, not the techniques, of
MANPRINT. This philosophy is organized around four major considerations
dealing with the Organization/Management Context, User-Centered Design
Advances, Systems Integration Methodologies, and Sources of User
Centered Technology in Parts I through IV, respectively. This book is
appropriate for a variety of readers. Whether you are a user, designer,
researcher, or manager of people-oriented systems, you should be
interested in this philosophy.
vII
viii FOREWORD
Users. Each of us use complex systems in our daily lives, and we are
often frustrated with the improper design of equipment in our homes and
offices. The philosophy of MANPRINT deals with these design problems by
providing a procedure to keep the needs and requirements of the user
central to the design and development of the products they will ultimately
use.
Part II and Part IV of this book which deal with user-centered design
advances and technology sources are particularly appropriate to the user.
These sections of the book address a general approach to providing
information about user needs as well as highlight specific considerations,
methods, and sources of information that are central to incorporating user
requirements in the design process.
DeSigners. Integration is key to the proper design of systems. People
oriented design involves the selection of appropriate users, the appropriate
training of the user, proper operation by the user, and adequate
maintenance of the system by the user. The design philosophy of this book
is unique in two aspects. First, there is an emphasis on the user of the
system early in design which continues throughout the design process.
Second, the MANPRINT design philosophy integrates the various system
acquisition functions throughout design. For example, trade-ofts are often
required between design and training, and these two functions must be
considered simultaneously. Often design and training are viewed as totally
independent in which training of the user is considered after the design is
determined. By trading off these two considerations, total system cost and
performance can be improved.
Part III of this book which deals with systems integration methodologies is
particularly appropriate for designers. In addition, the methods described in
Parts II and IV should be used in the deSign process in order to make
designs more user-centered.
Researchers. This book also suggests several opportunities to the
research community. In order to support the MANPRINT design philosophy,
a variety of design techniques need to be developed. Methodological
research needs to be goal oriented to provide direct support of these
design procedures. Although many techniques are already available for use
in the MANPRINT process, additional research is still needed.
Examples of design-oriented techniques such as computer-based
ergonomic design tools, workload analysis methods, and computer
modeling procedures are provided in Parts II and III. In addition, the need for
national human performance information centers is described in Part IV.
Research disciplines dealing with human factors engineering, computer
science, operations research, management science, and cognitive
psychology should each be interested in research to augment the
MANPRINT design philosophy.
Managers. This book provides an overall orientation for managing the
entire system acquisition cycle. This orientation is centered on the ultimate
FOREWORD Ix
user of the system. Managers of both the buyers and the builders of these
systems need to work cooperatively in order to produce truly usable
products.
All four parts of this book deal directly with the functions and process of
this management process. Specifically, Part I addresses the overall
orientation and management context needed for enhancement of user
centered design. More specifically, the acquisition decision process
described in Part III provides an overall description of the management
analysis and decision processes of MANPRINT in the acquisition of military
systems, but commercial applications are noted as well.
CHALLENGE
Read this book from your perspective as either a user, designer, researcher,
or manager. Consider this people-oriented design philosophy carefully. As
an academic, I read the MAN PRINT philosophy and discovered a variety of
implications for graduate training and research in human factors
engineering.
MANPRINT offers us an exciting opportunity to keep the ultimate user of
the system central in the design process. Many of the lessons learned from
the Army experience are now starting to appear. In the future, we should
expect to have more case studies and examples of improved system
acquisition and performance which can be related directly to the use of
MANPRINT. In addition, I hope we will develop new methods and augment
the training of the professionals needed to support this process.
As users, designers, researchers, and managers of these systems, we
must meet the challenge of MANPRINT to improve the design and utilization
of our products. Perhaps we can make the decade of the 1990s the decade
of user-oriented design. The philosophy of MANPRINT can help us reach
that goal.
Robert C. Williges
Professor
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
PREFACE
Global competition, demographic trends, and high-risk technology are
conspiring to bring both military and commercial industry from "equipment"
domination to a more "people-equipment" orientation. The purpose of this
book is to describe a new systems integration philosophy known as
MANPRINT (Manpower and Personnel Integration) which is involved in this
change. Through a series of edited works which speak to the concepts and
complexities of integrating people, machines, and organizations, it is written
to those who want to know more about the MANPRINT role in a changing
industrial culture.
In a kickoff meeting before we actually started to write, I asked each
author to focus their piece on an advanced technical or managerial concept
that could help enhance the overall MANPRINT approach as it was being
practiced by the Department of the Army. We set as a broad goal for each
chapter that it describe the state of the art of each concept and explain its
relevance to MAN PRINT as visualized in the symbol shown on the cover of
this book. The symbol, by showing primary colors combining to become
white, emphasizes the MANPRINT focus on the integration process. More
specifically, we asked each contributor to reflect on the complex
relationships among (1) people as designers, users, and repairers of
machines, (2) government and industrial organizations which regulate,
deSign, manufacture, and/or operate machines, and (3) methods and
processes for design, production, and operation of machines. Although
this goal was much more difficult to achieve than any of us envisioned at the
outset, I believe the reader will see not only a fairly comprehensive treatment
of specific topics, but also how the broader relevance of the topic to
complex systems is appreciated by the contributors.
I had in mind then, and even more so now that the book is complete, that
human factors as an engineering discipline is fully ready to be an inherent
activity within systems integration and that the MANPRINT approach can be
beneficial in that regard. But just as surely, I am convinced that fairly wide
sweeping organizational and managerial changes will be necessary for any
organization to adopt MANPRINT or any similar human factors approach as
routine in its systems project management. As a grass roots philosophy, the
idea of human factors technology has great appeal. It seems only common
sense that we should design things so they are safe and easy to use, break
seldom, but are easy to fix if they do break. Moreover, the technology of
human factors is sufficiently mature that if applied, I would estimate that 90
xl
xII PREFACE
percent of the problems users have with machines could be avoided. Yet, in
my 20-plus years with the profession, little has changed on a national level.
Human factors continues to be rediscovered nearly every time there is a well
publicized disaster in which "human error" is involved. Major human factors
programs were introduced in each branch of the military and the Department
of Transportation in the 1960s, yet the nuclear industry knew literally
nothing of the discipline until Three Mile Island drew it to their attention.
Those in the discipline have always been "crying in the wilderness." It
seems so obvious to design-in human technology early to avoid later
problems. Why hasn't the engineering world recognized its importance?
Charles Perrow, coming with a macro-view of human factors and its role in
our society, has probably come closest to putting his finger on the problem
("The Organizational Context of Human· Factors Engineering,"
Administrative Science Quarterly, 1983; Normal Accidents, Basic Books,
1984). If we are to understand why "the principles of human factors
engineers are so neglected" in most military and industrial organizations, we
need to have a better appreCiation of the relationship between equipment
design and organizational structure. After reviewing a wide variety of
organizational systems that involve high risk technologies - "nuclear power
plants, chemical plants, aircraft and air traffic control, ships, dams, nuclear
weapons, space missions and genetic engineering" - Perrow asked, "Who
bears the consequence of poor design in high-technology systems?"
Except in highly publicized catastrophes, it is usually no one at all in the
organization which produced the equipment. It is rather the operator or the
repairman who, if not a victim himself, is at least tagged with "human error."
Often those who rise to the defense of the operator or other users tend
to blame the design engineers. That is perhaps understandable since there
is so much human factors technology that the engineers seem to ignore.
But, Perrow forces us to search deeper for insights that can lead to more
profitable approaches. It is time to stop blaming the design engineer and
take into account the pervasive social casual factors. inherent in
organizations which make and operate our machines. Perrow describes the
situation from an organizational analyst's point of view. He reminds us that
managers and professionals respond to "rewards and sanctions and
prevailing belief systems of top management." There is nothing to prevent
top management, if it wishes, from informing designers about human factors
principles. Furthermore, it is top management who "can require that these
prinCiples be utilized." They alone "can structure the reward system so that
it encourages designers to take these principles into account." The issues
of rewards and consequences are at the very heart of the problem and
suggest a solution.
In the procurement of military equipment, we have often reflected on the
reward/consequences system for program managers. They are rewarded
for meeting near term costs and schedules and are usually far removed to
another job should disastrous consequences occur later in the hands of the
