Table Of ContentMandarin Chinese Words
and Parts of Speech
A Corpus-based Study
Chu-Ren Huang, Shu-Kai Hsieh
and Keh-Jiann Chen
Firstpublished2017
byRoutledge
2ParkSquare,MiltonPark,Abingdon,OxonOX144RN
andbyRoutledge
711ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10017
RoutledgeisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness
⃝c 2017Chu-RenHuang,Shu-KaiHsiehandKeh-JiannChen
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
LibraryofCongressCataloguing-in-PublicationData
Names:Huang,Chu-Ren,editor.|Hsieh,Shu-Kai,editor.|Chen,Keh-jiann,editor.
Title:MandarinChinesewordsandpartsofspeech:acorpus-basedstudy/editedbyChu-Ren
Huang,Shu-KaiHsiehandKeh-JiannChen.Description:MiltonPark,Abingdon,Oxon;NewYork,
NY:Routledge,[2017]|Series:RoutledgestudiesinChineselinguistics|Includesbibliographical
referencesandindex.Identifiers:LCCN2016052262|ISBN9781138949447(hardback:alk.paper)|
ISBN9781315669014(ebook)Subjects:LCSH:Mandarindialects–Partsofspeech–Dataprocessing.|
Mandarindialects–Termsandphrases–Dataprocessing.|Mandarindialects–Grammatical
categories–Dataprocessing.|Chineselanguage–Dialects–Dataprocessing.|Computational
linguistics.Classification:LCCPL1893.M262017|DDC495.15–dc23LCrecordavailableat
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052262
ISBN:978-1-138-94944-7(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-315-66901-4(ebk)
TypesetinTimesNewRoman
byOutofHousePublishing
Contents
Foreword xiii
Overview:FromLinguisticsStudiestoLanguageResources
AnnotationandProcessing 1
0.1 TwoFoundationalIssuesinLinguisticStudiesofChinese 1
0.1.1 ChineseWordSegmentation 1
0.1.2 ChinesePartsofSpeech 2
0.2 LanguageResourcesAnnotationandProcessing 3
0.2.1 LanguageResources 3
0.2.2 FromAnnotationtoLinguisticKnowledge 4
0.3 Summary 5
PARTI
Words,SegmentationUnits,andSegmentationStandards 7
1 Introduction 9
1.1 OriginandBackgroundInformation 9
1.2 Objectives 10
1.3 ResearchandImplementationPlan 10
1.3.1 Researchplan 10
1.3.2 ImplementationTimeline 11
1.4 CharacteristicsoftheStandard 11
2 WordSegmentationStandardandLevelsofStandards 13
2.1 WordSegmentationStandard 13
2.1.1 Definition 13
2.1.2 BasicPrinciples 13
2.1.3 SubsidiaryPrinciples 15
2.2 LevelsofSegmentationStandard 21
3 “Sou”WenJieZi:StudiesonIdentificationofWordsand
SegmentationUnits 27
3.1 SegmentationStandardsfortheDeterminer–Measure
Construction 27
3.2 SegmentationPrinciplesofReduplicationConstruction 30
3.3 SegmentationPrinciplesofAffixation 36
3.4 SegmentationPrincipleofVerb-complementCompounds 40
3.5 SegmentationPrincipleofPost-verbal‘yu’ 43
3.6 SegmentationRulesforConstructionslike為wei2‘for/as’/成
cheng2‘tobecome’/作zuo4‘as’ 50
3.7 SegmentationRulesforConstruction“verb+給gei3” 52
3.8 SegmentationRulesforConstruction“verb+有you3” 54
3.9 Segmentationrulesfor的de0,地de0,之zhi1 57
3.10 SegmentationPrincipleforNegation/negative 61
3.11 SegmentationPrinciplefor没(有)mei2(you3) 64
3.11.1 SegmentationPrinciplefor非fei1 65
3.11.2 SegmentationPrinciplefor别bie2,休xiu1,甭beng2 66
3.12 SegmentationprincipleforA-not-AQuestions 67
3.13 SegmentationPrincipleforWordswithInsertedElements 69
3.14 SegmentationPrincipleforBlendWords 72
3.14.1 SharingInitial/ending/bothWords 72
3.14.2 TelescopicCompounds 75
3.15 SegmentationPrincipleforPost-verbalModification 77
3.16 SegmentationPrincipleforProperNouns 80
3.17 SegmentationPrincipleforIdiomChunk 81
4 IllustrativeExamplesofImplementationof
SegmentationStandard 90
4.1 WordSegmentationStandard 90
4.2 SegmentationofWordsinDifferentLevels 96
5 ComparisonofTwoSegmentationStandards 97
5.1 TheDifferencesbetweenMainlandandTaiwan
WordSegmentationStandards 97
5.1.1 PrincipleDifferences 97
5.1.2 DetailComparison 98
5.2 FutureDevelopmentsforWordSegmentationStandards 99
5.2.1 TheEffectivenessofDefinition 99
5.2.2 ApplicableScopeofCombiningBoundMorphemewith
AdjacentWordsintoSegmentationUnit 100
5.2.3 AboutCombinationofModifier–HeadConstructions 101
5.2.4 TheDependencyandIndependencebetweenthe
SegmentationPrincipleandtheStandardLexicon 104
5.3 Conclusion 105
PARTII
PoSAnalysisofContemporaryChinese 107
6 IntroductiontoCKIPPartsofSpeechSystem 109
6.1 WordanditsPOSTagintheCKIPLexicon 109
6.1.1 AnnotationGuidelinesforBoundMorphemes 110
6.1.2 AnnotationGuidelinesforSentences 110
6.1.3 AnnotationGuidelinesforDeterminer–Measure
Compounds 111
6.1.4 AnnotationGuidelinesforReduplicatedWords 111
6.1.5 AnnotationGuidelinesforVerb–Complement
Compounds 111
6.2 POSAnnotation 112
6.2.1 PolyfunctionalityofWords 113
6.2.2 MultipleSyntacticClassificationofWords 115
7 V:Verbs 117
7.1 PrinciplesofVerbClassification 117
7.1.1 ActivityorState 117
7.1.2 TransitivityofVerbs 119
7.1.3 PhrasalFormsofArguments 119
7.1.4 ThematicRolesofArguments 120
7.1.5 SyntacticBehaviorsofVerbs 120
7.2 VerbClasses 121
7.2.1 VA:IntransitiveActivityVerbs 121
7.2.2 VB:Quasi-transitiveActivityVerbs 126
7.2.3 VC:ActivityTransitiveVerbs 129
7.2.4 VD:DitransitiveVerbs 136
7.2.5 VE:SententialObjectActionVerbs 140
7.2.6 VF:VerbPhraseObjectActivityVerbs 146
7.2.7 VG:ClassificatoryVerbs 149
7.2.8 VH:StateIntransitiveVerbs 151
7.2.9 VI:StateQuasi-transitiveVerbs 154
7.2.10 VJ:StateTransitiveVerbs 156
7.2.11 VK:StateSentential-objectVerbs 158
7.2.12 VL:StativeVP-objectVerbs 160
8 A:Non-PredicativeAdjectives 166
8.1 ListofPossibleSubclasses 166
8.2 ClassificationGuidelines 166
9 N:ContentWords 168
9.1 ClassificationofContentWords 169
9.1.1 Na:Nouns 170
9.1.2 Nb:ProperName 172
9.1.3 Nc:PlaceWords 173
9.1.4 Nd:TimeWords 174
9.1.5 Ne:Determinatives 177
9.1.6 Nf:MeasureWords 180
9.1.7 Ng:Localizers 194
9.1.8 Nh:Pronouns 195
9.2 ConceptualStructureofNouns 196
9.2.1 Framework 196
10 D:Adverbs 201
10.1 Da:QuantityAdverb 201
10.1.1 SyntacticFeatures 201
10.1.2 Subcategories 203
10.2 Dba:ModalAdverb 205
10.2.1 AnalysisPrinciples 206
10.2.2 Subcategories 207
10.3 Dbb/Dbc:EvaluativeAdverb 210
10.3.1 PrinciplesofAnalysis 210
10.3.2 Subcategories 211
10.4 Dc:NegativeAdverb 211
10.5 Dd:TimeAdverb 211
10.6 Df:DegreeAdverb 212
10.6.1 Subcategories 212
10.7 Dg:LocationAdverb 213
10.8 Dh:MannerAdverb 213
10.8.1 PrinciplesofAnalysis 213
10.9 Di:AspectAdverb 214
10.10 Dj:InterrogativeAdverb 215
10.10.1 PrinciplesofAnalysis 215
10.11 Dk:SententialAdverb 215
11 P:Preposition 216
11.1 SyntacticCharacteristicsofPrepositions 216
11.2 PrinciplesofAnalysis 218
12 C:Conjunction 223
12.1 Ca:JuxtaposingConjunctions 223
12.1.1 Subcategories 223
12.1.2 PrinciplesofAnalysis 227
12.2 Cb:CorrelativeConjunctions 228
12.2.1 Subcategories 229
13 T:Particles 230
13.1 Subcategory 230
13.2 ListsofParticles 231
14 I:Interjections 232
PARTIII
Resources 233
15 OnlineResources 235
16 FurtherReading/RecentStudies 237
AppendixI:ACompleteListofInflectional,Derivational,
andCompoundingAffixes 239
AppendixII:AffixesfromGB13715 240
AppendixIII:ComparisonTableofGB13715andCNS14366 241
AppendixIV:PrimarySourcesofPartA 244
AppendixV:SampleSegmentedText[Ya(Elegant)Level] 245
AppendixVI:ACompleteListofPartsofSpeechinMandarinChinese 254
AppendixVII:ACompleteTableofLocalizers 266
AppendixVIII:ConceptualStructureofNouns 280
References 281
Index 285
Foreword
The Chinese Knowledge Information Processing Group (CKIP) was founded
based on the vision of Prof. Chin-Chun Hsieh to build an infrastructure and to
lay a foundational knowledge for computational Chinese language processing
in 1986. Keh-jiann Chen soon joined to lead the group as a computer scientist
and Chu-Ren Huang joined as a co-leader as a linguist in 1987. One of the first
decisions that was made by the CKIP group was that to get the computational
processing right, we had to get the linguistic facts and generalizations right
first. Since Chinese linguistics, especially research adopting modern linguistics
theoriesandapproaches,wasstillintheearlystagesofdevelopment,thisdecision
meantthatsolidknowledgeoflinguisticgeneralizationsofChinesewouldbethe
first priority. Hence, the first task that the group embarked on was not to write
codeandprograms,buttocreateafullgrammaraswellasafullmachine-readable
dictionaryofMandarinChinese.Andverynaturally,thegroupsoonadoptedthe
data-driven, corpus-based approach that was starting to gain recognition in the
studyofEnglish.Itisthison-the-groundapproachthatmadetheanalysisofdata
and discussion of issues first conducted more than 20 years ago still relevant
today.Wehopethat,bymakingthesecontents,whichwereoriginallypublished
inChineseinTaiwan,availableinEnglish,wecanbringattentiontosomeofthe
basiclinguisticfactsandgeneralizationsunderliningissuesinChinesewordhood
and parts of speech classification that may have been lost in scholarly debates.
It is beyond the scope of this volume to deliberate on different approaches to
suchissuesbutsomeexamplesarediscussedinouroverviewchaptersandinthe
publicationslistedforfurtherreading.
The research reported here couldn’t have been carried out without the help
of many colleagues. Chin-chun Hsieh lit the first spark and has always been
supportive. Many theoretical and computational linguists provided advice at
different stages of our work; they include but are not limited to Yung-O Biq,
Fenfu Tsao, Charles T.-C. Tang, Chi-chen Jane Tang, Keh-yih Su, Shuan-fan
Huang,JasonS.Chang,andShiwenYu.Researchreportedherewassupportedby
variousgrantsinTaiwan,includingAcademiaSinica,ITRI,NSC,andtheNational
Standardization Bureau. We are also grateful to the generous support from the
Routledgeteam,includingAndreaHartillandCamilleBurns.
This work couldn’t have been done without the dedication of all past CKIP
members,includingthosewhomaynothavebeendirectlyinvolvedinthedrafting
oftheoriginaltext.Wethankyouallandapologizefornotbeingabletolistall
ofyouexceptforthosewhowereinvolvedindraftingthetwooriginaltechnical
reports.TheyareLi-LiChang張麗麗,Li-PingChang張莉萍,Feng-yiChen陳
鳳儀, Jing-yu Chen 陳鏡瑜, Lian-chen Chief 漆聯成, Yun-chin Chou 周芸青,
Wei-MeiHong洪偉美,Zhao-mingGao高照明,Hui-tingHuang黃惠婷,Rui-ju
Huang黃瑞珠,Huan-HuiLin林煌賄,Shu-meiLiu劉淑梅,Wen-juanMao毛
文娟, Ruo-ping Mo 莫若萍, Wen-jen Wei 魏文貞, Jiunn-hsiung Wu 吳俊雄,
and Meili Yeh 葉美利. In addition, we would like to thank the translation team
who provided the first translation and some initial editing. The team members
are mainly from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University and National Taiwan
University but also include other colleagues in Taiwan who were former CKIP
members: Stella Cong, Menghan Jiang, Chris Kwan, Yunfei Long, Hongchao
Liu, Hongzhi Xu, Meili Yeh, Shu-Kai Hsieh, Chen-Chun E, Shu-Ling Huang,
Meng-Xian Shih, Chang-Chia Hsu, Yu-Yun Chang, Chih-Yao Lee. In addition,
we would like to thank Kathleen Ahrens (who was also a CKIP member) and
Karl Neergaard for providing help in technical editing at different stages of the
manuscript.
Last,butnotleast,wewouldliketothankthePolyUPKUJointResearchCentre
on Chinese Linguistics, as well as the National Taiwan University’s LOPE lab
for providing logistical support, including the coordination work done by Stella
Cong.Anyremainingerrorsare,ofcourse,ours.
Chu-RenHuang
Shu-KaiHsieh
Keh-JiannChen
HongKongandTaiwan,
12September,2016
Overview
From Linguistics Studies to
Language Resources Annotation and
Processing
Workpresentedinthisvolumeisatranslation,withcorrectionsandsomeupdates,
of two classical volumes written and published by the Chinese Knowledge
InformationProcessing(詞庫小組CKIP)groupatAcademiaSinica(CKIP1993
and 1996). The content presented here is the result of the first corpus-based,
data-driven comprehensive research on two of the most basic issues in Chinese
linguistics:thedefinitionsofwords(inlightofcomputationalwordsegmentation)
andthedefinitionandclassificationcriteriaforgrammaticalcategories(orParts
of Speech, PoS). The research on word segmentation and PoS classification
reportedherewasthetheoreticalandempiricalunderpinningfortheconstruction
of the Academia Sinica Balanced Chinese Corpus (Sinica Corpus, Chen et al.
1996); the volume can also be considered as a companion volume for Sinica
Corpus(http://asbc.iis.sinica.edu.tw/).
0.1 TwoFoundationalIssuesinLinguisticStudiesofChinese
The issues and data analysis presented here remain central to any theoretical
inquiry,pedagogicalpractice,andcomputationalapplicationsofChinesebecause
oftwocharacteristicsofthelanguage.First,Chinesewritingdoesnotmarkword
boundaries(unlikeotherlanguagessuchasEnglish,wherespacescanbetreated
asworddelimiters).Second,Chineselacksmorphologicalmarkinginassociation
withcategoricalalternations.
0.1.1 ChineseWordSegmentation
ThispartaddressesthewordhoodissueinChinese.Inparticular,asegmentation
standard is proposed to achieve linguistic felicity, computational feasibility,
and data uniformity. Linguistic felicity is maintained by the definition of a
segmentation unit that is equivalent to the theoretical definition of a word, as
well as a set of segmentation principles that are equivalent to the functional
definition of a word. Specifically, since the proposed segmentation standard is
intended for Chinese natural language processing, it is very important that it
reflects linguistic reality as well as computational applicability. Computational
feasibility is thus ensured by the fact that the above functional definitions are
