Managing for sustainability : the live reef food-fish trade in

233 Pages·2015·1.25 MB·English

by  Ryan Donnelly

Southern Cross University
Managing for Sustainability: the Live Reef
Food-Fish Trade in Solomon Islands
Ryan Donnelly B.App.Sci (Hons)
Graduate Research College
Southern Cross University, Lismore NSW
Thesis submitted for the Degree of Master of Science (Research)
12 July 2009
Statement of Sources
I certify that the work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief,
original, except as acknowledged in the text, and that the material has not been submitted,
either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university.
I acknowledge that I have read and understood the University's rules, requirements,
procedures and policy relating to my higher degree research award and to my thesis. I certify
that I have complied with the rules, requirements, procedures and policy of the University (as
they may be from time to time).

Ryan Donnelly
12 July 2009
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the co-operation of all the villagers in the three areas visited for
their patience and good humour in the conduct of this research. Visits to the regions were
characterised by good will and warm hospitality. Gregory Bennett did an excellent job of
conducting the bulk of the survey. He went about the task with a typically positive outlook.
Nelson Kilé stood in for Gregory for the Ontong Java leg of the research. We shared many
enjoyable hours exchanging stories and laughing. Prior to the Ontong Java survey, I enjoyed
the hospitality of Nelson and Michelle Lam at their home in Honiara. I would like to thank
them both for making me welcome. In Australia, Lyle Squire Snr provided invaluable advice
and friendship, Derrin Davis showed me a lot of faith, Katrina Luckie was terrific with her
data analysis, and Peter Harrison was positive and prompt with his editing and feedback.
Thankyou.

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Abstract
This thesis presents the results of a project funded by the Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research, which was devised in response to claims from the Solomon Islands
government that the Live Reef Food-Fish Trade (LRFFT) in that country was conducted in a
manner considered highly unsustainable. The project sought to establish a plan of
management that would enable the fishery to be conducted on a sustainable basis. The
population in Solomon Islands is overwhelmingly rural with largely subsistence economies at
the village level. However, urban migration and cash dependence are growing phenomena.
Unsustainable conduct of the LRFFT was considered a threat to the social and cultural fabric
of the majority of the population, one that threatened food security and, in light of high
population growth, the tenability of village life.
The aim of the thesis is to assemble the information necessary to establish management of the
LRFFT in Solomon Islands on a sustainable basis. The primary focus entailed a socio-
economic evaluation of village life prior to, and in the presence of, a live fishery in order to
gauge the impact of the live fish trade. It also examined the biological and ecological
consequences of the adopted fishing practice; and the legislative and customary frameworks
upon which the trade might be managed in a sustainable manner.
Interactions between fisheries development, coral reef ecosystems and demography determine
that the study of fishing, especially subsistence fishing, requires the integration of research on
the ecology of the reefs and their resources with research on coastal economies and societies.
This has consequences for development and management programs and the evaluation of their
impact on village communities. The demographic and food issues associated with fishing are
at the focal point of fisheries dynamics. Consequently, this thesis examines the various
components of the LRFFT and focuses on the social dynamics and development opportunities
in Solomon Islands.
The study found that the rate of participation, and the fishing effort exerted, in the LRFFT
differed in each of the three regions within Solomon Islands that hosted the trade. The
difference was related to proximity to markets and alternative sources of income. The
common aspect among these regions was that participation accompanied intensive fishing in
seasonal and highly predictable spawning aggregations of the targeted species. Such fishing
practice elsewhere has led to the collapse of fish aggregations and subsequent failure to
reform. These species do not feature as a staple in the diet of villagers but do form a
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component. Fishers were paid marginally more for live fish than they received periodically
for dead fish. During the three-month spawning period, villagers earned an apparently large
amount, yet over the duration of one year, the returns were unremarkable. The disturbance to
village life during this fishing period, the threat to future food security and the ecological
consequences of the mass removal of top end reef predators, however, are the important
consequences of the LRFFT conducted in a previously unregulated manner.
Observance of the Customary Marine Tenure system in Solomon Islands is strong. There is a
strict hierarchical decision-making structure within the villages and clan groups. Defence of
fishing access entitlements for a commercial purpose is vigilant and Custom Law is exercised
for all but the most serious breaches. The government Fisheries Division is poorly resourced
and, consequently, has a limited enforcement capacity. The scope for community-based co-
management is very good. Solomon Islands has modern Fisheries legislation that emphasises
sustainable utilisation of marine resources. In accordance with this legislation, this project
devised a plan of management that places customary reef owners central to the issue of
LRFFT licenses and the conditions outlined therein. Intending operators must meet the
conditions of a three-tiered approval process. Overriding all negotiated conditions is that
fishing is prohibited in areas that are declared fish aggregation sites for three ten-day
spawning periods per year, as is the export of Napoleon Wrasse.
Fisheries Officers were trained in aspects of live fish husbandry in a format designed for
community extension. A stock monitoring program has been established, using Underwater
Visual Census, which will form the basis of feedback between reef owners and Fisheries
Officers, thereby cultivating an advocative relationship.
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Table of Contents
Statement of Sources ______________________________________________________ ii
Acknowledgements _______________________________________________________ ii
Abstract_________________________________________________________________iii
Chapter 1: The Live Reef Food-Fish Trade_____________________________________ 1
1.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________ 1
1.2 History and Development of the LRFFT ____________________________________ 2
1.3 Exporting Countries ____________________________________________________ 4
1.3.1 Indonesia and Philippines ____________________________________________ 4
1.3.2 Pacific Region _____________________________________________________ 6
1.3.3 Other Source Countries ______________________________________________ 7
1.3.4 Aquaculture/Mariculture _____________________________________________ 8
1.4 Scope of the Study _____________________________________________________ 9
1.5 Aims and Objectives___________________________________________________ 10
Chapter 2: Sustainability and the LRFFT _____________________________________ 12
2.1 The Concept of Sustainability ___________________________________________ 12
2.1.1 Institutional Role in Achieving Sustainability ___________________________ 12
2.2 Sustainability Issues in the LRFFT _______________________________________ 16
2.2.1 Habitat Degradation from Sodium Cyanide Use__________________________ 17
2.2.2 The Cycle of Debt _________________________________________________ 19
2.2.3 Poorly Defined Property Rights ______________________________________ 20
2.2.4 Economic Impacts of Reef Habitat Destruction __________________________ 21
2.2.5 Ciguatera Poisoning________________________________________________ 21
2.3 Intensive Fishing in Spawning Aggregations________________________________ 22
2.3.1 Spawning Behaviour of Reef Fish_____________________________________ 23
2.3.2 The Impacts of Fishing Spawning Aggregations _________________________ 26
2.3.3 Biological Consequences of Fishing Spawning Aggregations _______________ 27
Chapter 3: The LRFFT in Solomon Islands ___________________________________ 30
3.1 Solomon Islands Background____________________________________________ 30
3.1.1 People __________________________________________________________ 30
3.1.2 Settlement Pattern _________________________________________________ 31
3.1.3 Economy ________________________________________________________ 32
3.1.4 Contemporary Political Climate ______________________________________ 33
3.1.5 Population Pressure ________________________________________________ 33
3.1.6 Population Dynamics_______________________________________________ 34
3.1.7 Urban Migration __________________________________________________ 35
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3.1.8 Religion _________________________________________________________ 35
3.1.9 Fishing Activity ___________________________________________________ 36
3.2 Development of the LRFFT in Solomon Islands _____________________________ 38
3.2.1 Origins __________________________________________________________ 38
3.2.2 Dynamics of the LRFFT in Solomon Islands ____________________________ 39
3.2.3 Moratorium ______________________________________________________ 41
3.2.4 Management Impediments __________________________________________ 42
3.2.5 License Application Procedure _______________________________________ 43
3.2.6 Status of the LRFFT as at the end of 2001 ______________________________ 43
3.2.7 Status of Spawning Aggregations: Marovo Lagoon _______________________ 44
Chapter 4: Fisheries Management Framework in Solomon Islands ________________ 47
4.1 Legal Framework for the Management of the LRFFT_________________________ 49
4.1.1 International Conventions and Instruments______________________________ 49
4.1.2 National Framework for the Management of the LRFFT ___________________ 51
4.1.3 The Fisheries Act 1998 _____________________________________________ 51
4.2 Administrative Framework______________________________________________ 54
4.2.1 Fisheries Division _________________________________________________ 54
4.3 Customary Resource Management in Solomon Islands________________________ 56
4.3.1 Customary Marine Tenure System ____________________________________ 56
4.3.2 Village Decision-Making Systems ____________________________________ 57
4.3.3 Effectiveness of Customary Fisheries Management _______________________ 61
4.3.4 Integration with Centralised Management ______________________________ 61
4.4 Community-based Co-management _______________________________________ 62
4.4.1 Successes and Failures _____________________________________________ 64
Chapter 5: Socio-economics and the Impact of the LRFFT in Solomon Islands ______ 67
5.1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 67
5.2 Scope and Limitations of this Study_______________________________________ 67
5.3 Components of the Survey ______________________________________________ 68
5.3.1 Activities of the household __________________________________________ 68
5.3.2 Fishing Effort_____________________________________________________ 68
5.3.3 Catch of LRFFT Target Species ______________________________________ 69
5.3.4 Patterns of Consumption of LRFFT Species_____________________________ 69
5.3.5 Income and Expenditure ____________________________________________ 69
5.3.6 Perceptions of Importance___________________________________________ 69
5.4 Methods ____________________________________________________________ 69
5.4.1 Survey Implementation and Analysis __________________________________ 69
5.5 Inter-regional Results __________________________________________________ 70
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5.5.1 Sample Description ________________________________________________ 70
5.5.2 Activities of the Household__________________________________________ 72
5.5.3 Fishing Effort_____________________________________________________ 75
5.5.4 Fishing Catch_____________________________________________________ 77
5.5.5 Frequency of Consumption of LRFFT Target Species _____________________ 79
5.5.6 Income and Expenditure ____________________________________________ 82
5.5.7 Perceptions of Importance___________________________________________ 87
5.6 Discussion of Inter regional Results_______________________________________ 90
5.6.1 Impact of the LRFFT on Village Households ____________________________ 91
5.6.2 Chilled Fishery ___________________________________________________ 92
5.6.3 Significance of the LRFFT Target Species ______________________________ 93
5.6.4 Income Earning Opportunities and the Cost of Living _____________________ 94
5.6.5 The Grouper Resource and its Management _____________________________ 97
Chapter 6: Socio-economics and the Impact of the LRFFT in Marovo Lagoon _____ 100
6.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 100
6.2 Results ____________________________________________________________ 102
6.2.1 Sample Description _______________________________________________ 102
6.2.2 Activities of the Household_________________________________________ 104
6.2.3 Fishing Effort____________________________________________________ 107
6.2.4 Fishing Catch____________________________________________________ 108
6.2.5 Frequency of Consumption of LRFFT Species__________________________ 109
6.2.6 Income and Expenditure ___________________________________________ 112
6.2.7 Perceptions of Importance__________________________________________ 116
6.3 Discussion__________________________________________________________ 119
6.3.1 Perceived Necessity for the LRFFT in Marovo Lagoon ___________________ 119
6.3.2 Impact of the LRFFT on Village Households in Marovo Lagoon ___________ 120
6.3.3 Chilled Fishery in Marovo Lagoon ___________________________________ 121
6.3.4 Significance of the LRFFT Target Species in Marovo Lagoon _____________ 122
6.3.5 Income Opportunities and the Cost of Living in Marovo Lagoon ___________ 124
6.3.6 The Grouper Resource and its Management in Marovo Lagoon ____________ 126
Chapter 7: Socio-economics and the Impact of the LRFFT in Roviana Lagoon _____ 128
7.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 128
7.2 Results ____________________________________________________________ 130
7.2.1 Sample Description _______________________________________________ 130
7.2.2 Activities of the Household_________________________________________ 131
7.2.3 Fishing Effort____________________________________________________ 133
7.2.4 Fishing Catch____________________________________________________ 134
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7.2.5 Frequency of Consumption of LRFFT Species__________________________ 135
7.2.6 Income and Expenditure ___________________________________________ 138
7.2.7 Perceptions of Importance__________________________________________ 141
7.3 Discussion__________________________________________________________ 142
7.3.1 Perceived Necessity for the LRFFT in Roviana Lagoon___________________ 142
7.3.2 Impact of the LRFFT on Village Households in Roviana Lagoon ___________ 143
7.3.3 Chilled Fishery in Roviana Lagoon___________________________________ 144
7.3.4 Significance of the LRFFT Target Species in Roviana Lagoon _____________ 145
7.3.5 Income Opportunities and the Cost of Living in Roviana Lagoon ___________ 147
7.3.6 The Grouper Resource and its Management in Roviana Lagoon ____________ 148
Chapter 8: Socio-economics and the Impact of the LRFFT in Ontong Java ________ 150
8.1 Introduction ________________________________________________________ 150
8.2 Results ____________________________________________________________ 152
8.2.1 Sample Description _______________________________________________ 152
8.2.2 Activities of the Household_________________________________________ 153
8.2.3 Fishing Effort____________________________________________________ 154
8.2.4 Fishing Catch____________________________________________________ 155
8.2.5 Frequency of Consumption of LRFFT Species__________________________ 156
8.2.6 Income and Expenditure ___________________________________________ 158
8.2.7 Perceptions of Importance__________________________________________ 161
8.3 Discussion__________________________________________________________ 164
8.3.1 Perceived Necessity for the LRFFT in Ontong Java ______________________ 164
8.3.2 Impact of the LRFFT on Village Households in Ontong Java ______________ 165
8.3.3 Significance of the LRFFT Target Species in Ontong Java ________________ 166
8.3.4 Income Opportunities and the Cost of Living in Ontong Java ______________ 167
8.3.5 The Grouper Resource and its Management in Ontong Java _______________ 168
Chapter 9: Conclusions and Recommendations _______________________________ 170
9.1 Conclusions ________________________________________________________ 170
9.2 Formulation of a Plan of Management____________________________________ 172
9.3 Management Strategies________________________________________________ 172
9.4 Incorporating International Standards for the LRFFT ________________________ 174
9.4.1 Destructive fishing________________________________________________ 175
9.4.2 Target stock _____________________________________________________ 175
9.4.3 Food safety _____________________________________________________ 175
9.4.4 Transshipment ___________________________________________________ 175
9.5 Process of License Issue_______________________________________________ 175
9.6 Precautionary Approaches to Fisheries Management ________________________ 176
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9.7 Management and Development Strategies _________________________________ 176
9.7.1 Control of Fishing Effort ___________________________________________ 177
9.7.2 Reef Owner Agreements ___________________________________________ 177
9.7.3 Monitoring and Compliance ________________________________________ 177
9.8 Management Measures________________________________________________ 177
9.8.1 Reef Owner Agreements ___________________________________________ 177
9.8.2 Licensing _______________________________________________________ 179
9.8.3 Species Restrictions_______________________________________________ 179
9.8.4 Closed Season ___________________________________________________ 180
9.8.5 Closed Area _____________________________________________________ 180
9.8.6 Gear Restrictions _________________________________________________ 180
9.8.7 Foreign Vessel Requirements _______________________________________ 180
9.8.8 Responsible Fishing Practises _______________________________________ 181
9.8.9 By-catch________________________________________________________ 181
9.8.10 Training _______________________________________________________ 181
9.8.11 Restrictions of Fishers ____________________________________________ 181
9.9 Monitoring _________________________________________________________ 181
9.10 Amendments_______________________________________________________ 183
References ____________________________________________________________ 184
Appendix 1: Village Household Questionnaire ________________________________ 200
Appendix 2: Pilot Survey Notes_____________________________________________ 203

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