Table Of ContentMAN AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Report of the Ethics Committee
Royal Norwegian Ministry of Health and Social Affairs
1991
ag ee aac a
Introduction and Summary
The Ethics Committee was appointed by Royal De-
cree of 8 April 1988 for the purpose of drawing up ethical
guidelines to cover the aspects of research and develop-
ment in biotechnology and gene technology relating to
human beings. The background for this appointment
was the Storting’s request, in connection with its debate
on the bill relating to artificial procreation in June 1987,
for a Report to the Storting (the national assembly) on
biotechnology and gene technology. This Report was to
provide a basis for ethical debate and proposals for futu-
re legislation. The present report by the Ethics Commit-
tee will form the basis of the Report to the Storting. The
Ethics Committee was chaired by Professor Julie Skjzr-
aasen of Rikshospitalet, the National Hospital, Oslo.
INFORMATION CENTRE
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SURVEY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE the level of understanding among the general
REPORT population. To this end, the Committee has
chosen to concentrate on relatively compre-
Chapter 2
hensive descriptions of the issues and met-
Chapter 2 describes the appointment, man- hods of biotechnology and gene technology
date, composition and working procedures of within the areas included in the mandate, rat-
the Committee. The chapter also provides a her than on discussions of abstract ethical
summary of the work done by previous go- models and theories. The ethical judgments
vernments on biotechnology and of the inten- of the Committee are naturally influenced by
tions of the present government in this re- the personal opinions of its members, which
gard. This includes the Committee’s memo- gradually evolved during the long delibera-
randum to the Minister of Health and Social tions entailed in preparing the report. The
Affairs in early 1989 concerning a provisional ways in which methods of biotechnology and
assessment of the need for continual follow- gene technology are regulated will have con-
up of developments in biotechnology and ge- sequences for both individuals and society as
ne technology, and describing the official a whole. The Committee considers it impor-
board on biotechnology and gene technology tant that relevant ethical questions related to
that is being set up in accordance with a deci- biotechnology and gene technology are dis-
sion by the Storting in June 1989. cussed by the public at large, and has therefo-
re done its best to present complex subjects
Chapter 3 as simply and understandably as possible. It
Chapter 3 starts with the Committee’s defi- would be unethical to take up hard and fast
nition of its mandate. The Committee decided positions on the basis of uninformed views.
to concentrate on areas of biotechnology and The answers to many of the questions dis-
gene technology that have been especially de- cussed in this report will depend on individu-
bated in Norway and many other countries al values. In the Committee’s opinion many of
and in international bodies, because they are these questions do not have «right” or
new and/or because of their potential for rai- «wrong” answers and therefore the report do-
_ sing ethical questions. es not always present unanimous conclu-
The rapid development of methods based’’’ sions. Ideally, the development and applica-
on biotechnology and gene technology for ap- tion of research on biotechnology and gene
plication to humans has been accompanied technology would be directed towards com-
by an information explosion across national mon objectives based on norms and values
and research boundaries. Scientists in many that are widely accepted among the Norwegi-
different countries are working on the same an population. In practice, however, the
or similar problems at the same time, and norms and values are themselves influenced
continually supply each other with new pre- by developments in society.
mises for further work. The same questions Chapter 3 also provides a survey of the rele-
are being discussed in many different interna- vant concepts and methods in gene technolo-
tional agencies, and the international debate gy, explaining relevant terms like cells, DNA,
has caused many countries, inside and outsi- genes and chromosomes. The chapter provi-
de Europe, are preparing national guidelines des an overview of present and future techni-
and legislation that reflect. both the interna- ques in gene technology, and of genetic disea-
tional debate and their own ideological and ses, including the different forms of Mendeli-
political values and norms. an heredity. A few genetic diseases or condi-
The speed of developments in this field ma- tions where modern gene technology can pro-
kes it impossible to remain completely up to vide medical benefits in the form of more pre-
date. This may result on the one hand in un- cise diagnoses, but where these very benefits
founded fears based on imagined threats, and can create ethical problems, are also revie-
on the other in an inability to promote servi- wed.
ceable legislation and disposition of resour- The number of diseases known to be due to
ces due to lack of knowledge. The Committee Mendelian heredity is growing as our know-
therefore considers it imperative to increase ledge of the connection between heredity and
disease increases. Up to 1990, 4930 Mendelian pending on whether they are judged accor-
diseases have been described. Most of these ding to teleological or deontological ethical
are extremely rare, and in many cases only principles and depending on views on self-de-
one or a few cases have been registered world- termination.
wide. It is predicted that at least 1 per cent of
a given population will suffer from a Mendeli-
an disease which is either congenital, i.e. pre- Chapter 5
sent at birth, or appears at some time in the This chapter contains a survey of Norwegi-
course of their lives. We do not know with cer- an and Nordic committees, reports, etc. con-
tainty how many people in Norway suffer cerned with biotechnology and gene techno-
from a Mendelian disease, nor do we know ex- logy.
actly how many of the almost 5000 such disea-
ses are represented in Norway. In the case of
certain rare diseases, there cannot be more Chapter 6
than one or at most a few cases in this coun- Chapter 6 contains an overview of national
try. and European legislation, reeommendations,
A list of current projects concerned with etc. on biotechnology and gene technology.
mapping human genes, with comments on Many countries both in and outside Europe
the potential ethical problems associated are engaged in preparing national guidelines
with such mapping, is given at the end of and legislation for regulating reproduction
chapter 3. and gene technology, but there are great diffe-
rences between countries as regards their pro-
posed and established legislation, both in Eu-
Chapter 4 rope and between the Nordic countries. How-
Part of the Committee’s mandate was to ex- ever, a desire for coordination on a Nordic
amine the ethical principles and values cur- and a European basis has been expressed in
rent in Norwegian society that would form a the Nordic Council and the Council of Euro-
suitable basis for ethical guidelines for bi- pe, respectively.
otechnological research and development.
The Committee defines ethical guidelines as a
set of moral principles that are not legally bin- Chapter 7
ding but that propose recommended courses Part of the Committee’s mandate is to dis-
of action in particular situations. The popula- cuss ethical questions raised by research and
tion should in general be able to agree on the- development in biotechnology and gene tech-
se principles, irrespective of their religious or nology in the foreseeable future. Because of
political beliefs. In the Committee’s opinion, the enormous speed in the progress of rese-
ethical principles based on both Christian arch, and in the spread of these methods as
and humanistic ideals would be acceptable to applied to human beings, the Committee cho-
the Norwegian population as a whole. The se to base its discussions on developments in
chapter contains a survey of ethical concepts techniques, methods, types of treatment, etc.
and traditions, pointing out the diversity of that reputable experts in the field regard as
theories and the fact that there are often con- probable. They also chose to define the fore-
siderable differences of opinion prevailing seeable future as about six to eight years after
among moral philosophers and other thinkers the report has been completed and debated in
with backgrounds in ethics. Brief outlines are the Storting, and the subsequent legislation
given of present-day Christian and humanis- and guidelines have been laid down.
tic ethics.
In spite of the fact that ethical principles
may be based on either religious or secular Chapter 8
philosophies of life, there is often more agree- In this chapter the Committee discusses the
ment than disagreement on guiding princi- use of screening in relation to genetic disease.
ples and specific choices. The whole of Wes- The Committee has in principle a critical atti-
tern culture, including Norway, has a com- tude to the use of screening to register the
mon ethical tradition based on a respect for li- prevalence of a genetic disease, individual
fe and human dignity. Comparisons of Chris- predispositions towards a genetic disease or
tian and humanistic ethics show that differen- the presence in an individual’s genetic consti-
ces between them on specific points are often tution of a genetic disease. The members of
concerned more with reasons than with re- the Committee do not agree on how far a scep-
sults. In spite of this, the points raised in this tical attitude towards genetic screening
report will lead to different conclusions de- should be expressed.
Chapter 9 should be permitted on medical indications.
This chapter contains a discussion on re- This minority proposes that the statutory pro-
production technology. During the 12 years visions ensuring the anonymity of sperm do-
that have passed since the first birth follow- nors should then be extended to apply to egg
ing in vitro fertilization, artificial procreation donation. Permission to donate eggs would
has become practised all over the world. At le- also involve an amendment to the Children
ast 35,000 children are thought to have been Act defining the child’s mother.
born as a result of such treatment. The num- Existing legislation prohibits research on
ber is so large that there is no international fertilized eggs, but the scope of this prohibi-
overview. The Nordic countries have one of tion is unclear. The term «research on fertili-
the highest success rates in the world in this zed eggs” is unclear and may have different
respect. meanings in different contexts. The Commit-
In vitro fertilization (IVF) was discussed in tee recommends retaining the wording of the
detail in Norway during the debate on the prohibition, but with a more precise defini-
proposed bill relating to artificial procreation tion of the term «research». The Committee
in 1987. In the report the Committee discus- considers that the extraction and fertilization
ses the ethical problems raised during the de- of eggs exclusively for research purposes
bate and later by the practice of the method. should be prohibited. On the other hand, if
These include the question of a continued sta- eggs are extracted and fertilized for the pur-
tutory prohibition against research on fertili- pose of returning them to the woman’s uterus,
zed eggs, indications for IVF, changes in the then changing the procedure for treating the
time limit for keeping frozen fertilized eggs, eggs in order to improve the method should,
egg donation and selective reduction of fetu- in the Committee’s opinion, be permitted.
ses. The Committee considers that eggs that are
The majority of the Committee consider not selected for implantation must be destroy-
that IVF should continue to be allowed in ed or frozen for later implantation, and that
Norway. Although the method is open to ethi- any other use of superfluous eggs should be
cal objections, the majority regard its value in prohibited. In order to reduce the number of
the treatment of childlessness as being over- multiple pregnancies, the seven Norwegian
whelmingly positive, and emphasize the fact IVF clinics have established a common prac-
that it is already widely accepted in Norwegi- tice since 1 January 1990 of implanting no mo-
an society. A minority of one considers that re than three fertilized eggs at each treatment.
IVF should be prohibited in Norway because The Committee considers that this practice
it is based on research that this member finds should be made obligatory and laid down in
ethically unacceptable and because it provi- the form of regulations.
des considerable opportunities for manipula- Experience has shown that the freezing of
tion in combination with other techniques. fertilized eggs is a significant contribution to
According to the present Act, fertilization the success of IVF. Centres all over the world
outside the body may only be carried out in are using this method to an increasing extent.
the case of infertility in the woman. On the ba- The most recent statistics show no indication
sis of developments occurring since the Act that freezing and thawing of fertilized eggs
entered into force in 1987, the Committee pro- lead to a higher incidence of malformations.
poses that the Act be changed to allow access According to present legislation, frozen ferti-
to IVF treatment for infertility in men as well lized eggs may not be stored for more than 12
aS women and in the case of unexplained in- months. A majority of the Committee recom-
fertility. mend an extension of this time to three years,
The present Act provides that fertilization to ensure that there is a real possibility of
outside the body may only be carried out with achieving a second pregnancy. A minority
the eggs and sperm of the couple involved. considers that the storage limit should be re-
This means that at present the use of donor duced to nine months in order to exclude the
sperm for IVF is prohibited. A minority of the possibility of a second pregnancy.
Committee wishes to amend the Act so as to Selective reduction of fetuses means that
allow the use of donor sperm in connection the number of fetuses in the uterus is reduced
with IVF. by ensuring that one or more die in order that
According to the present Act, fertilized eggs the remainder may continue to develop. This
may only be implanted in the woman from procedure is applicable in theory to natural
whom they came, which means that donation multiple pregnancies as well as IVF-induced
of eggs is prohibited. The majority of the pregnancies. The Committee considers that
Committee wish to retain this prohibition. A selective reduction of fetuses should not be
minority proposes that donation of eggs permitted in such cases. The present Act rela-
ting to the termination of pregnancy contains es, ultrasound diagnosis of abnormal fetal de-
no provisions dealing with this question. velopment and possible future methods of ge-
ne technology applicable at an early stage of
pregnancy.
Chapter 10
Research groups in many parts of the world
In this chapter the Committee continues to
are now working on methods for testing the
expand its views on the prohibition of rese-
mother’s blood in early pregnancy. The Com-
arch on fertilized eggs, and discusses ques-
mittee’s view is that such tests are at present
tions raised by research on fetuses and by the
in the experimental stage and may not beco-
use of fetal tissues and organs for purposes of
me applicable within the foreseeable future.
transplantation. The Committee’s recommen-
If they should become practicable, the Com-
dation to retain the prohibition on research
mittee considers that they should be subjec-
on fertilized eggs entails that fertilizing eggs
ted to the same criteria as other forms of pre-
for research purposes would also continue to
natal diagnosis.
be prohibited. On the other hand, the Com-
Preimplantation diagnostics refers to the
mittee acknowledges that information and
testing of a fertilized egg to find out whether
methods based on research on fertilized eggs
it is the carrier of a genetic disease. Such tes-
can lead to significant improvements in IVF
ting has to be done in connection with IVF,
treatment, and that this treatment is nowa-
before the egg is implanted in the uterus. The
days regarded as a benefit to which people are
Committee considers that the available inter-
entitled and which is expected of a modern
national findings are at present too inconclu-
health service. The Committee is aware that
sive to be able to judge whether such diagnos-
prohibiting research on fertilized eggs and ac-
tic methods should or should not be permit-
cepting the methods based to some extent on
ted, and that in any case, such a method
such research can be said to be inconsistent,
should only be used in cases where there is a
and even unethical. However, the Committee
high risk of a serious genetic disease. A mino-
does not consider that any circumstances ha-
rity does not consider that any form of preim-
ve arisen within the last three years to justify
plantation technique for diagnosing fertilized
the introduction of research on fertilized eggs
eggs with genetic defects should be permit-
in Norway. The Committee therefore feels
ted.
that Norwegian society will simply have to li-
The Committee considers that ultrasound
ve with this inconsistency.
examinations can give rise to an ethical di-
In the Committee’s view research using ma-
lemma. On the one hand this method allows a
terial from spontaneously aborted fetuses
better monitoring of pregnancy, with the pos-
should be permitted after evaluation by a re-
sibility of preventing injury to the fetus and of
gional research ethics committee. Research
diagnosing serious developmental defects.
based on experiments carried out on fetuses
On the other hand, the way this method is
before an induced abortion should in the
practised today contains an element of popu-
Committee’s view be prohibited. A majority
lation screening which is ethically questiona-
of the Committee consider that cells and tis-
ble. The pregnant woman and her partner
sues from aborted fetuses should continue to may be faced with an ethical dilemma that
be used in the diagnosis of virus diseases in
they lack the knowledge and experience to
approved medical laboratories as is done to-
solve. When routine examinations of preg-
day, whereas a minority considers that such
nant women were introduced in Norway, the-
use of cells and tissues from aborted fetuses is
se problems were only foreseen to a very limi-
ethically questionable. The majority consider
ted extent. In the Committee’s view the ques-
that the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs tion of ultrasound examinations for all preg-
should decide on the future use of fetal tissue
nant women should have been put to the Stor-
for transplantation purposes, while the mino-
ting.
rity considers the transplantation of fetal tis- Within the next few years, it is thought that
sue from an induced abortion to be ethically
a technique using a combination of tests of
unacceptable. the mother’s blood will be able to reveal 60
per cent of fetuses with Down Syndrome in
Chapter 11 the 16th week of pregnancy. If this is combi-
The Committee uses the term «prenatal di- ned with ultrasound examinations, an even
agnostics” to refer to all forms of examination greater proportion of fetuses with Down Syn-
of the fetus to diagnose or exclude the presen- drome will be able to be diagnosed. These
ce of disease or malformation before birth. It new techniques raise so many ethical ques-
has focussed especially on ethical questions tions that the Committee decided to deal with
raised by amniocentesis and chorion biopsi- Down Syndrome separately.
A majority of the Committee consider that general way except in relation to prenatal di-
the use of this particular test for identifying agnosis. However, the Committee is clearly
Down Syndrome in utero should be prohibi- aware that a future increase in techniques for
ted for women who are not at risk. A minority diagnosing genetic diseases and chromoso-
considers that since the test has a low stan- mal errors before the 12th week of pregnancy
dard of reliability, such a prohibition is unne- may lead to a fresh debate on the right to
cessary. abortion on demand, based on different pre-
A majority of the Committee consider that a mises. A minority of the Committee proposes
diagnosis of Down Syndrome in utero should an amendment to the Act relating to the ter-
constitute valid grounds for an abortion at the mination of pregnancy providing that the ter-
parents’ request, but that this does not imply mination must be carried out before the end
any denigration of the human worth of a fetus of the 10th week of pregnancy.
with the diagnosis of Down Syndrome. These
members consider that in certain cases this Chapter 12
condition can represent an intolerable burden In this chapter the Committee points out
for the family as a whole. The minority feels that since the Act relating to transplantation
that the diagnosis Down Syndrome does not and the regulations defining the moment of
in itself consitute a reason for terminating a death do not seem to have caused any ethical
pregnancy, and propose an amendment of the conflicts in Norway, it did not seem necessary
Act relating to the termination of pregnancy to discuss fundamental ethical problems as-
providing that non-fatal developmental ab- sociated with organ transplantation. The
normalities are not in themselves an indica- Committee recommends that the need for for-
tion for abortion. mal guidance of physicians who have to deci-
The Committee has differing views on what de on the donation of organs from dead bodi-
constitute acceptable indications for selective es be evaluated, and likewise the necessity for
abortion. The majority do not consider that an information campaign about the need for
there is any reason to propose changes in the organs for transplantation. The Committee
existing practice, but recommends that neit- proposes that the Act relating to transplanta-
her Turner Syndrome nor Klinefelter Syndro- tion be amended to include a prohibition on
me should in themselves be considered indi- the buying and selling of organs.
cations for abortion. The minority considers
that abortion is only acceptable in cases whe-
re there is a risk that the child itself will have Chapter 13
to live with a great deal of pain and suffering. The new techniques for investigating DNA
The Committee also has differing views on allow information to be obtained about an in-
the question of maternal age as an indication. dividual’s genes, and this raises considera-
Three members propose that there should be tions about the individual’s right to privacy.
no change in the existing practice of offering In the next four chapters the Committee dis-
amniocentesis to all women who become cusses the use of DNA technology for medical
pregnant over the age of 38. Three members purposes in four different contexts: the tes-
consider that the age limit should be lowered ting of employees, the diagnosis of carriers of
to 35. Two members consider that age should genetic disease, predictive testing of persons
not be an indication at all, so that women over with a high risk of developing a particular ge-
the age of 38 would no longer be offered the netic disease, and testing to reveal any gene-
possibility of prenatal diagnosis on the basis tic predisposition towards certain common
of their age alone. diseases. Chapter 13 deals with questions that
The Committee proposes an amendment to concern the right of privacy, which are similar
the Act relating to medical practitioners to en- in all medical contexts, with the need to regu-
sure that the parents are not informed of the late the use of DNA techniques and with the
sex of a baby until after the 12th week of preg- confidential treatment of the findings. In the
nancy, except in cases of serious sex-related opinion of the Committee genetic testing of
diseases. In the opinion of the Committee, se- employees at their place of work should be
lective abortion based on prenatal genetic prohibited, and in cases where tests are carri-
tests in the case of multiple pregnancy should ed out, it should be prohibited to reveal the re-
be evaluated according to the same criteria as sults to present or future employers.
in the case of a single fetus. The Committee has to some extent divided
The question of abortion on demand is out- views on the regulations required to govern
side the Committee’s mandate, and the provi- the use of DNA technology. The Committee
sions of the Act relating to the termination of agrees that an institution intending to use
pregnancy were therefore not discussed in a such techniques must have specific approval
from the Ministry of Health and Social Af- Chapter 15
fairs. The institution must deliver written re- There are a number of rare Mendelian disea-
ports to the Ministry on all applications of
ses that only become manifest later in life. In
such techniques involving human beings some cases DNA technology has made it pos-
both before and after birth. Four of the Com-
sible to diagnose the disease before it actually
mittee members consider that the use of DNA appears. The ethical and legal problems ari-
technology should be based on expert medi- sing from the use of DNA techniques for pre-
cal opinion, and that the Ministry of Health dictive testing have been debated in many
and Social Affairs should only be authorized countries in recent years. An especially rele-
to monitor such activities on the basis of writ- vant disease in this context is Huntington’s
ten reports, and to interfere if necessary. The disease. Chapter 15 describes this serious,
other four members consider that for the time inexorably progressive disease, which attacks
being the Ministry of Health and Social Af- the nervous system. Huntington’s disease is a
fairs should be authorized to approve the use predominantly inherited disorder, and cer-
of DNA diagnostic techniques in the cases of tain families in Norway have a high incidence.
specific diseases for which these tests are ap- About 160 persons in Norway are known to
plicable. The entire Committee agrees that have the disease. A number of countries have
DNA techniques should only be applied in introduced predictive testing, and in early
prenatal diagnosis to test for serious genetic 1990 the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs
diseases. gave permission for predictive testing to be
The regulation of the use of DNA techniqu- carried out on adults at risk at their request
es for diagnostic, preventive or other special (i.e. persons with a 25 or 50 per cent risk of ha-
purposes, and the prohibition on the use of in- ving inherited the disease). A comprehensive
formation concerning an individual’s genes set of ethical and practical guidelines has be-
should in the view of the Committee be incor- en drawn up, and is presented in an annex to
porated into an act regulating the use of gene the report.
technology. The prohibition against the use of
genetic information should apply to the aut- Chapter 16
horities, present and future employers, educa- Genetic factors contribute to a predisposi-
tional institutions, medical institutions, pen- tion or resistance towards many of the most
sion funds, life insurance companies and ot- widespread diseases in Norway today. In
her institutions requiring medical data. It chapter 16 the Committee discusses the use of
should be prohibited to request, possess, re- DNA techniques to reveal the risk of disease,
ceive or make use of such information as well i.e. investigations of the genetic constitution
as to attempt to find out whether such tests of healthy people to evaluate whether they are
have been carried out. likely to suffer from a particular disease in the
future. By no means all of those predisposed
to a disease will develop it. At present DNA
Chapter 14 techniques to demonstrate a predisposition to
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the only serious re- a genetic disease are not in use in Norway.
cessive genetic disease that is so common in The Committee considers that the use of
Norway that there is some point in discussing DNA techniques to reveal a genetic disposi-
the screening of the whole population or cer- tion towards a disease should be limited to ca-
tain groups for carriers of the disease. The fac- ses with a specific medical objective, and
tor that makes diagnosing the carriers of this where the efficiency of the DNA technique in
disease so relevant is that the same genetic identifying persons at risk has been docu-
defect has been identified in 70-80 per cent of mented. The Committee recommends that
carriers in many different ethnic groups. The such DNA techniques should not be used to
Committee therefore decided to consider this test large population groups for their predis-
disease separately. There are about 185 per- position to a particular disease until there is
sons with CF in Norway, of whom about 50 adequate evidence of the efficiency of preven-
are over 18 years of age. Previously most tive measures, and until considerations con-
children with CF died before reaching school nected with the right of privacy have been ta-
age, but today the life expectancy of such in- ken care of. The use of DNA techniques on
dividuals is steadily improving. About 150,000 medical indications in connection with fami-
people in Norway are healthy carriers of the lial disease should be permitted.
CF gene. In the opinion of the Committee a
general testing of the population to establish Chapter 17
carriers of the CF gene should not be introdu- There is no effective treatment for the majo-
ced. rity of genetic diseases. The possibility of cor-
recting genetic errors by gene therapy has Chapter 19
therefore been discussed in international fora There is a widespread belief among organi-
for several years. The first experiments with zations representing the disabled that gene
such therapy have been started in the USA. technology will have consequences far be-
There are two kinds of therapy - somatic gene yond the sphere of medicine itself. Many beli-
therapy, which only cures the person being eve that the most significant of these will have
treated, and germ cell therapy, where the alte- a general moral and social character. In chap-
red genetic material is passed on to future ge- ter 19 the Committee emphasizes that the li-
nerations. If somatic gene therapy proves to ving conditions for the disabled will influence
be an effective form of treatment for certain future attitudes in our society towards gene
genetic diseases, it should, in the Committe- technology. The Committee is of the opinion
e’s opinion, be permitted in Norway. Howe- that ensuring that the disabled live under
ver, the Committee considers that even if conditions encouraging equal status and the
germ cell therapy should become practicable greatest possible participation in all areas of
without undesirable side effects, it should not society will call for continuous and long-las-
be permitted. Germ cell therapy should be re- ting efforts.
jected on ideological grounds, because of the
risk of man-mediated changes in the human Chapters 20 and 21
species.
Chapter 20 contains a discussion on legal,
economic and administrative measures for di-
Chapter 18
rection and control of biotechnological deve-
When considering the question of the trans- lopments based on the Committee’s propo-
fer of genes between humans and animals, a sals in previous chapters.
line should be drawn between the transfer of Chapter 21 discusses the need for expertise
single genes from humans to animals and among administrative officers, the assign-
cross-fertilization between humans and other ment of responsibility for genetic counselling
species for the purpose of creating a creature and the need for a report on the resources
that is half human and half animal. The latter available for carrying out DNA diagnosis in
is biologically impossible. individuals after birth.
