Table Of ContentMaking Sense of the Social World
2
Related Titles in Research Methods and Statistics From SAGE
Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Research, Ninth Edition, by Russell K. Schutt
The Practice of Research in Social Work, Third Edition, by Rafael J. Engel and Russell K. Schutt
The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice, Sixth Edition, by Ronet K. Bachman and
Russell K. Schutt
Fundamentals of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice, Third Edition, by Ronet K. Bachman and
Russell K. Schutt
Designing Surveys: A Guide to Decisions and Procedures, Second Edition, by Ronald F. Czaja and Johnny Blair
A Guide to Qualitative Field Research, Second Edition, by Carol A. Bailey
Adventures in Social Research, Seventh Edition, by Earl Babbie, Fred Halley, William E. Wagner, III, and
Jeanne Zaino
Adventures in Criminal Justice Research, Fourth Edition, by Kim Logio, George Dowdall, Earl Babbie, and
Fred Halley
Social Statistics for a Diverse Society, Sixth Edition, by Chava Frankfort-Nachmias and Anna Leon-
Guerrero
Essentials of Social Statistics for a Diverse Society, by Anna Leon-Guerrero and Chava Frankfort-Nachmias
Research Methods in Psychology: Investigating Human Behavior, Third Edition, by Paul G. Nestor and
Russell K. Schutt
Research Methods in Education, by Joseph Check and Russell K. Schutt
Fundamentals of Social Work Research, Second Edition, by Rafael J. Engel and Russell K. Schutt
Constructing Social Research, by Charles C. Ragin and Lisa M. Amoroso
Using IBM© SPSS© Statistics for Social Statistics and Research Methods, Third Edition, by William E.
Wagner, III
3
Making Sense of the Social World
Methods of Investigation
Sixth Edition
Daniel F. Chambliss
Hamilton College
Russell K. Schutt
University of Massachusetts Boston
Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
Melbourne
4
FOR INFORMATION:
SAGE Publications, Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
E-mail: [email protected]
SAGE Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.
B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area
Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India
SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.
18 Cross Street #10-10/11/12
China Square Central
Singapore 048423
Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 978-1-5063-6411-7
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Acquisitions Editor: Jeff Lasser
Content Development Editor: Liza Neustaetter
Editorial Assistant: Tiara Beatty
Production Editor: Andrew Olson
Copy Editor: Colleen Brennan
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Barbara Coster
Indexer: May Hasso
Cover Designer: Scott Van Atta
Marketing Manager: Kara Kindstrom
5
Brief Contents
1. ABOUT THE AUTHORS
2. PREFACE
3. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
4. Chapter 1. Science, Society, and Social Research
5. Chapter 2. The Process and Problems of Social Research
6. Chapter 3. Ethics in Research
7. Chapter 4. Conceptualization and Measurement
8. Chapter 5. Sampling and Generalizability
9. Chapter 6. Causation and Experimental Design
10. Chapter 7. Survey Research
11. Chapter 8. Elementary Quantitative Data Analysis
12. Chapter 9. Qualitative Methods: Observing, Participating, Listening
13. Chapter 10. Qualitative Data Analysis
14. Chapter 11. Unobtrusive Measures
15. Chapter 12. Evaluation Research
16. Chapter 13. Reviewing, Proposing, and Reporting Research
17. GLOSSARY
18. APPENDIX A: FINDING INFORMATION
19. REFERENCES
20. INDEX
6
Detailed Contents
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Chapter 1. Science, Society, and Social Research
Learning About the Social World
Overgeneralization
Selective or Inaccurate Observation
Illogical Reasoning
Resistance to Change
Research That Matters
Can Social Scientists See the Social World More Clearly?
Social Research in Practice
Description: How Often Do Americans “Neighbor”?
Exploration: How Do Athletic Teams Build Player Loyalty?
Explanation: Does Social Context Influence Adolescent Outcomes?
Research in the News | Social Media and Political Polarization?
Evaluation: Does More Social Capital Result in More Community Participation?
How Well Have We Done Our Research?
Careers and Research: Jessica LeBlanc, Research Assistant
Measurement Validity
Generalizability
Causal Validity
Conclusion
Key Terms
Highlights
Student Study Site
Exercises
Chapter 2. The Process and Problems of Social Research
What Is the Question?
What Is the Theory?
What Is the Strategy?
Deductive Research
Research in the News | Control and Fear: What Mass Killings and Domestic Violence Have in
Common
Domestic Violence and the Research Circle
Inductive Research
Research That Matters
7
An Inductive Study of Response to a Disaster
Descriptive Research: A Necessary Step
What Is the Design?
Cross-Sectional Designs
Longitudinal Designs
Trend Designs
Panel Designs
Cohort Designs
Units and Levels of Analysis
Careers and Research: Kristin M. Curtis, Senior Research Program Coordinator
Conclusion
Key Terms
Highlights
Student Study Site
Exercises
Chapter 3. Ethics in Research
Historical Background
Ethical Principles
Protecting Research Subjects
Avoid Harming Research Participants
Obtain Informed Consent
Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances
Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality
Research That Matters
Maintaining Honesty and Openness
Achieving Valid Results
Research in the News | Some Social Scientists Are Tired of Asking for Permission
Encouraging Appropriate Application
Careers and Research: Manan Nayak, Senior Project Director
Conclusion
Key Terms
Highlights
Student Study Site
Exercises
Chapter 4. Conceptualization and Measurement
What Do We Have in Mind?
Conceptualization
Research That Matters
Variables and Constants
Research in the News | Are Teenagers Replacing Drugs With Smartphones?
8
How Will We Know When We’ve Found It?
Using Available Data
Content Analysis
Constructing Questions
Single Questions
Indexes and Scales
Making Observations
Combining Measurement Operations
How Much Information Do We Really Have?
Nominal Level of Measurement
Ordinal Level of Measurement
Interval Level of Measurement
Ratio Level of Measurement
Comparison of Levels of Measurement
Careers and Research: Dana Hunt, PhD, Principal Scientist
Did We Measure What We Wanted to Measure?
Measurement Validity
Face Validity
Criterion Validity
Construct Validity
Reliability
Can We Achieve Both Reliability and Validity?
Conclusion
Key Terms
Highlights
Student Study Site
Exercises
Chapter 5. Sampling and Generalizability
How Do We Prepare to Sample?
Define Sample Components and the Population
Evaluate Generalizability
Assess the Diversity of the Population
Consider a Census
What Sampling Method Should We Use?
Research That Matters
Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling
Research in the News | What Are Best Practices for Sampling Vulnerable Populations?
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
9
Stratified Random Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Availability Sampling
Careers and Research: Ross Koppel, PhD, Sociologist
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Conclusion
Key Terms
Highlights
Student Study Site
Exercises
Chapter 6. Causation and Experimental Design
Causal Explanation
What Causes What?
Research in the News | Police and Black Drivers
Association
Research That Matters
Time Order
Nonspuriousness
Mechanism
Context
Why Experiment?
Careers and Research: Sruthi Chandrasekaran, Senior Research Associate
What If a True Experiment Isn’t Possible?
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
Before-and-After Designs
Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs
What Are the Threats to Validity?
Threats to Internal (Causal) Validity
Noncomparable Groups
Endogenous Change
History
Contamination
Treatment Misidentification
Threats to Generalizability
Sample Generalizability
Cross-Population Generalizability
Interaction of Testing and Treatment
How Do Experimenters Protect Their Subjects?
10
