Table Of ContentMain trends of research in the
social and human sciences
Part one: Social sciences
Preface by Re& Maheu
Director-General of Unesco
Mouton/U nesco
Paris The Hague
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Main trends of research
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in the social
’
and human sciences
This volume is the result of a study
initiated by UNESCO in 1965 and carried
out in collaboration with national and
internationalo rganizations and research
centres in the social sciences as well
as with scores of individual scholars.
The undertaking was designed to lead
to a report on the main trends of re-
search, not on the results achieved by
research or even on the state of current
research. In other words, to borrow the
terms used by certain specialists con-
sulted in the preliminary stages of the
study, the aim was to identify ‘the
paths on which .. . the science of to-
morrow may embark‘( C.Lk vi-Strauss),
‘the development of science, or science
in the making’ (J. Piaget).
The study includes an examination of
the present state as well as the pers-
pectives for development of the various
disciplines,b ut also deals with a series of
questions relative to the inter-a nd multi-
disciplinary dimensions of research. A
concluding chapter is devoted to the or-
ganization and financing of research in
the social sciences.
This work is intended not only for the
educated reader, for research workers
and their professional associations, but
also for those institutions,b oth nation-
al and international, whose task it is
to organize, plan and finance scientific
research.
Continued on back flap
The following disciplines and areas are
treated by scholars eminent in their
field :
Introduction: The place of the sciences
of man in the system of sciences, by
J. Piaget.
I. Main trends of research in the d$-
ferent social sciences:
Sociology, by P. F. Lazarsfeld;
Political science, by W.J . h;I. Macken-
zie;
Psychology,b y J. Piaget;
Economics, based on the preliminary
work of 0.L ange, W.B rus, T.K owalik
and I. Sachs;
Demography, by J. Bourgeois-Pichat;
Linguistics, by R. Jakobson.
2. Interdisciplinary aspects of research:
General problems of interdisciplinary
research and common mechanisms, by
J. Piaget;
Mathematical models and methods, by
R.B oudon;
Cross-cultural,c ross-societala nd cross-
national research, by S. Rokkan.
3. Science policy and development of
research in the social sciences:
The organization and financing of re-
search, by E. Trist.
The Preface is by R.M aheu, Director-
General of UNESCO, and the Foreword
by S. Friedman, of the Department
of Social Sciences of UNESCO.
Main trends of research in the
social and human sciences
Part one: Social sciences
-
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 70 114641
6 Unesco 1970, Place de Fontenoy, Paris
Printed by G.J . Thieme, Nijmegen (The Netherlands)
Table of contents
PREFACEby, Ren6 Maheu, Director-General of Unesco M
FOREWORDb,y Samy Friedman XXIX
INTRODUCTION Theplace of the sciences of man in the system of sciences,
by Jean Piaget I
Classification of social disciplines and ‘human sciences’, p. I ; Major
trends in the history of the nomothetic sciences, p. 7; Special episte-
mological features and foundations of the sciences of man, p. 15;E x-
perimental methods and the analysis of factual data, p. 25 ; The scien-
ces of man and the great philosophical or ideological trends, p. 33;T he
sciences of man, the natural sciences and the system of sciences, p. 38;
Major theoretical trends : forecast and explanation, p. 45 ; Specializa-
tion and integration; basic research and applications, p. 51; Notes,
P. 56.
1. Main trends of research in the diflerent social
sciences
CHAPTEIR Sociology, by P. F. Lazarsfeld 61
Introduction, p. 61; Conceptual contribution of survey analysis to
general sociology, p. 64; Macrosociology, p. 76; Quest for theory,
p. 90; National variations in sociological activities, p. I 19;S ociology
and the other social sciences, p. 130; Notes, p. 152.
CHAPTE1R1 Political science, by W.J . M. Mackenzie I 66
Introduction, p. 166;D elimitation of scope,p . 167;E cology of political
science, p. 180; Research in progress, p. 185; Concluding remarks,
p. 217;N otes, p. 221.
VI Table of confents
CHAPTEmR Psychology, by Jean Piaget 225
Scientific psychology and philosophy, p. 226; Empiricism without
structuralism and the need for explanation in psychology, p. 229; The
organicist trend and the relations of psychology and biology, p. 235;
The physicalist trend and the various levels of perception, p. 239;
Psycho-sociological trends and the interactions between the general
and the social, p. 242; Psychoanalytic research into mental specificity,
p. 248;Thes peciiicityof behaviour and thestructures of memory,p.2 52;
Psychogenetic structuralism with reference to animals and children and
theories of the intelligence, p. 258; Abstract models, p. 263; Relation-
ships between psychology and other sciences, p. 269; The applications
of psychology: basic research and 'applied' psychology, p. 274; Notes,
p. 280.
CHAPTEIRV Economics 283
Introduction, p. 283; The development of economics and its place
among the sciences of man, p. 284; Economic thinking, models and
methods, p. 302; Some of the major issues facing economics today,
p. 322; Conclusion, p. 343; Notes, p. 344.
CHAPTEvR Demography, by Jean Bourgeois-Pichat 351
General considerations concerning demographic research, p. 35 I ;
Demographic research and biology, p. 356; Demographic research and
economic development, p. 368 ; Demographic research and human
ecology, p. 378; Demographic research and sociology, p. 381;D emo-
graphic research and means of observation, p. 383; The contribution
of demographic research to the other sciences, p. 385; Organization of
demographic research, p. 387; Survey of the present situation, p. 394;
A few closing remarks, p. 406; Notes, p. 407; References, p. 409.
CHAPTEVRI Linguistics, by Roman Jakobson 419
Relationship between the science of language and other sciences, p. 419;
Sources cited, p. 448; Essentials and goals of contemporary linguistics,
p. 453; Recent surveys of current linguistic issues (1958-1968), p. 461.
2. Interdisciplinary aspects of research
CHAPTEwR Generalp roblems of interdisciplinary research and common
mechanisms, by Jean Piaget 467
Position of the problems, p. 467; Structures and rules (or norms),
p. 479; Functioning and values, p. 493; Meanings and their systems,
p. 510; Conclusion: the subject of knowledge and the human sciences,
p. 521;N otes, p. 526.
CHAPTEVRII I Mathematical models and methods, by Raymond Boudon 529
Introduction, p. 529;T he traditional uses of mathematics in the human
sciences, p. 530; The major trends characterizing the applications of
mathematical methods and models in the human sciences, p. 536; The
different types of models, p. 556; Tlie future, p. 573; Notes, p. 575.
Table of contents w
CHAPTEIRX Problem-focused research, by Pierre de Bie 578
Introduction, p. 578; Problem-focused research, p. 579; The multi-
disciplinary dimension,p . 596 ; The difficulties of problem-focused re-
search, p. 610;C onditions of multidisciplinary problem-focused re-
search, p. 626; Notes, p. 641.
CHAPTExR Cross-cultural, cross-societal and cross-national research,
by Stein Rokkan 645
Some elementary distinctions, p. 645 ; Three traditions of comparative
research, p. 655;T he decisive challenge: the construction of typologies
of ‘macro’s ettings for variations in human behaviour, p. 666; The
organizational infrastructure, p. 676; Notes, p. 683.
3. Science policy and development of research in
the social sciences
CHAPTEXRI The organization andfinancing of research, by Eric Trist 693
Nature and scope of the inquiry: social research as a policy concern,
p. 693; Survey of country groupings: current trends in the United
States, p. 699; transition in Western Europe, p. 725; new patterns in
Eastern Europe, p. 746; developing the social sciences in the develop-
ing world, p. 763 ; Analysis and commentary : building organizational
capability, p. 779; changing the scientific value system, p. 786; describ-
ing the resource base, p. 793; the search for a policy for the social
sciences, p. 798; Bibliography, p. 803.
SUBJECT INDEX 813
Preface
When,a t the end of 1962,t he General Conference of UNESCO at its twelfth ses-
sion decided’ to include in the Organization’s programme for the following
two years an examination of the basis upon which a study could be made of the
main trends of research in the social and human sciences, it was thinking in
terms of a companion-piecet o the survey on trends of inquiry in the natural
sciences which had already been carried out under the direction of Professor
Pierre Auger in 1959 and 1960 in response to a request from the Economic and
Social Council.2
Pointing out how important this latter study was and drawing attention to the
contribution that research in the social and human sciences also had to make
to economic and social progress, the General Conference underlined the
desirability of elucidating the major trends at present discernible in those scien-
ces.
The usefulness of the undertaking will, I think, be borne out by the volume
which is today being presented to the public. It represents the first part of the
International Study on the Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human
Sciences, an undertaking finally approved by the General Conference at its
thirteenth session in 1964.3W ork on the first part of the Study began in 1965 ‘in
collaboration with competent national and international institutions, both
governmental and non-governmental,a nd with the help of a consultative com-
mittee and other consultants and experts in different disciplines belonging to
different schools of thought and representing the principal cultural andideological
orientations in the contemporary world’.
In accordance with the directions laid down by the General Conference, this
study covers some of the major ‘law-seeking’di sciplines, such as sociology, poli-
tical science,s ocial and cultural anthropology,4p sychology, economics, demog-
raphy and linguistics; consideration of the interdisciplinary dimensions of re-
search, and its organization and financing, also have an important place in it.
The second part of the project, on which work began in 1967, is now being
carried out; its object is to identify the principal research trends in the legal
sciences,t he historical sciences,a rchaeology and prehistory,t he study of forms
x RenCMaheu
of artistic and literary expression, and philosophy. A number of theoretical and
practical questions, concerning, among other things, the development of inter-
disciplinary co-operationa nd the contribution that the study of man can make to
social progress and international understanding, will also be raised in the con-
clusions to the various specialized chapters and taken up again in a chapter giv-
ing a general summing up; certain types of convergent investigations, such as
those relating to the study of cultures and civilizations, will thus be the subject
of preliminary inquiries paving the way for more detailed studies. The results of
this second part will be reported in a second volume, publication of which is
scheduled for 1972.
The whole undertaking has been planned to produce a work on the main trends
in research, not on results achieved by research or even on the status of current
research.I n other words, the aim has been - to quote the striking phrases used
-
by two of the specialists consulted to identify ‘the paths on which.. . the
sciences of tomorrow may embark‘ (Claude L6vi-Strauss), ‘the development of
science, or science in the making’( Jean Piaget). The study is intended not only for
the educated reader, for research workers themselves and their professional as-
sociations, but also for those institutions, both national and international,w hose
taskit is to organizeand finance scientific research. Besides considerations regard-
ing trends and methods, therefore, this work also contains reflections upon cer-
tain social needs prompting applied or ‘problem-focused‘i nterdisciplinary re-
search, with particular reference to the organization of teaching and research,
methods of financing research, and the regroupings of institutions which seem
most likely to ensure progress in the social and human sciences and to overcome
the crisis through which teaching and research in this field are at present passing
in a number of countries.
In view of the diversity of aims thus described, several methods of work and,
more particularly,s everal methods of collaboration with the competent specialists
and bodies, have been followed. These methods, different but parallel, may be
grouped into three main categories: (a) collaboration with specialists called upon
to give a unified, universalistic presentation, in their own contributions, of the
scientific matters dealt with in the different chapters; (b) collaboration with na-
tional or regional bodies and with certain individual specialists, called upon to
provide, through their contributions andtheir criticalcomments,a ppropriate doc-
umentation on thevarious levels of scientific development and the different fields
of scientific interest; (c) co-ordinationo f these two complementary methods by
the UNESCO Secretariat, which has been responsible for the over-allp lanning and
execution of the project.
In January 1965,t he Secretariat set up machinery for seekingoutthenecessary
documentation,a nd sent out questionnaires to some 150 specialists in different
disciplines and 500 national or regional bodies, councils, foundations,r esearch
institutes and centres, universities, professional associations, etc., all or part of
whose activities relate to the fields covered by the first part of the Study. Fur-
thermore, twelve international non-governmental organizations, a list of which
is annexed,5 and all the National Commissions for UNESCO were invited to assist,
by their suggestions, advice and criticism, in clarifying the procedures for carry-
