Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Physical and Biological Principles

529 Pages·2014·39.17 MB·English

by  Stewart C. Bushong

MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
IMAGING
Physical and Biological Principles
This page intentionally left blank
FOURTH EDITION
MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
IMAGING
Physical and Biological Principles
Stewart Carlyle Bushong, ScD, FAAPM, FACR
Professor of Radiologic Science
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas
Geoffrey Clarke, PhD
Professor and Chief of Graduate Education
Department of Radiology
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
San Antonio, Texas
3251 Riverport Lane
St. Louis, Missouri 63043
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING: PHYSICAL AND ISBN: 978-0-323-07354-7
BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Copyright © 2015, 2003, 1996, 1988 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations
such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our
website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check
the most current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of
each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and
duration of administration, and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying
on their own experience and knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages
and the best treatment for each individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bushong, Stewart C., author.
Magnetic resonance imaging : physical and biological principles / Stewart Carlyle Bushong, Geoffrey
Clarke.—Fourth edition.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-323-07354-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
I. Clarke, Geoffrey David, 1956- author. II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Magnetic Resonance Imaging. 2. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. WN 185]
RC78.7.N83
616.07′54–dc23
2014016502
Executive Content Strategist: Sonya Seigafuse
Content Development Specialist: Kristen Mandava
Publishing Services Manager: Catherine Jackson
Senior Project Manager: Rachel E. McMullen
Design Direction: Maggie Reid
Printed in the United States of America
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is also dedicated to the 429 Baylor College of Medicine radiology resident TOOLS who
endured my medical physics classes, my easy exams, and my lousy jokes since I began doing this in
1967. They gave me much grief but much more pleasure, and most have become lasting close friends.
Asron J. Baxtor ’12—Achal Sarna (HMP) ’04—Achilles Chatziioannou ’96—Adam W. Meyers ’13 –Ahmad A. Khan ’14—Akom Vutpakdi
’71—Alfred E. Delumpa (HMP) ’14—Alicia Roman ’10—Amaia Rauch (HMP) ’08—Amarinthia Curtis (NP) ’08—Aminata Traore ’15—
Anand Prabhakar (NP, HMP) ’09—Andrew J. Marsala ’16—Andrew R. Palisch ’12—Angel Gunn ’05—Anjali Agrawal (HMP) ’02—Ann
Marie Marciel ’08—Anthony Sparks ’14—Anuja Jhingran^ ’93—Aparna Annan ’12—Arnold Nitishian• ’74—Artie Schwartz ’95—Arturo
Castro^ ’82—Ashley Roark ’15—Augusto Merello• ’82, ’85—B. Michael Driver^ ’85—B.A. King ’72—Barry M. Uhl^ ’00—Becky
Borders ’09—Beatriz Lopez-Miranda ’99—Benjamin Wendel ’80—Berta Kvamme ’94—Bignesh Satpahty ’13—Bill Ketcham ’02—Bill
Prominski ’87—Bill Reid ’88—Bin S. Teh^ (NP) ’98—Blake Hocott (HMP) ’91—Bob Francis ’84—Bob Osborne ’85—Bob Stallworth
’92—Bradley J. Potsic (HMP) ’12—Brandon Langlinais ’08—Brandon Stroh ’05—Brian Carrier (HMP) ’11—Brian Ogden ’10—Brian
S. Haley ’14—Bruce Cheatham ’79—Bruce Morris ’97—Bryan L. VanZandt ’12—Bryan Prange ’09—Burton Spangler ’71—C.T. Morris,
Jr. ’80—Candy Roberts ’88—Carl E. Nuesch^ ’89—Carl Harrell ’81—Carlo A. Viamonte (NP) ’12—Carlos Farinas ’07—Carol Simmons
’68—Chad J. Goodman (NP) ’99—Chad M. Amosson^ ’01—Chad Mills ’02—Charles C. Trinh (HMP) ’99—Charles L. Moffet^ ’80—
Charlie Williams ’73—Charlotte Hayes ’93—Chitra Viswanathan (NP, HMP) ’05—Chris Canitz ’97—Chris Govea ’04—Christopher A.
Bedford ’17—Cindy Woo ’93—Colin Bray ’05—Colin Dodds (HMP) ’03—Corey Jensen (HMP) ’10—Craig Polson ’89—Craig Thiessen
’89—Daniel Bokhari ’17—Daniel Miller ’81— Daniel Reimer ’78—Daniel W. Fang (HMP)
’01—David A. Hughes• ’76—David Boals† ’69—David Diment ’89—David E. Goller ’98—
David Feldman ’93—David J. Sabbag ’16— David l. Irwin ’15—David Katz (NP) ’07—David
King ’87—David L. Janssen^ ’86—David S. Conrow (HMP) ’00—David Walker^ ’72—
David Wynne (HMP) ’11—Dean Chauvin (HMP) ’08—Derek Bergeson ’06—Don Evans ’07—
Donald Holmquest• ’74—Douglas Woo ’77—Doyle Simmons ’68—E. Gordon DePuey•
’77—Earljay O. Landrito ’17—Ebrahim S. Delpassand• ’90—Eduardo Martinez ’80—
Edward Callaway ’91—Edward Knudson ’74—Elan Omessi ’94—Elizabeth Koch ’85—
Elizabeth Rhea ’76—Elizabeth Weihe ’11—Ellis Eliza Deville^ ’77—Eric Trevino ’11—Ernesto
Blanco ’09—Errol Anderson ’85—Errol Candy ’89—Eugene Brown ’88—Ezequiel Silva ’01—
Farbod Nasseri (NP) ’13—Francisco Arraiza ’02—Frank Hadlock ’75—Frank Scalfano
’89—Fred Dean ’72—Fred Johnson ’77— Fred Quenzer ’72—G. Maria Rauch (HMP)
’08—Gardiner Bourque ’68—Garrett Anderson (HMP) ’02—Gary L. Horn ’15—Gary S. Likhari ’15—Gene Cunningham ’73—Gene
Smigocki ’87—George Boutros ’74—George Campbell† ’72—George Chacko• ’92—George Sofis ’05—George Soltes (HMP) ’94—
George Yama ’71—Gitesh Chheda ’09—Greg Boys (HMP) ’04—Gregory A. Patton^ ’81—Gregory H. Boering ’17—Guy Robitaille
’70—Hal Jayson ’83—Hana Khan ’11—Harry Butters ’78—Hollis Halford III ’81—Hsin H. Lu^ ’86—Hussain Thaver ’10—Iris W.
Gayed• ’97—Isabel Menendez ’85—J.P. Badami II ’83—J.P. Harris ’03—James Courtney (HMP) ’98—James D. Green ’70—James
E. Lefler ’98—James Fuchs ’80—James Lloyd ’83—James P. Caplan• ’81—James Tatum ’08—James P. Willis ’98—James Teague†
’78—James Van Dolah ’76—James W. Cole ’95—James Wolf ’91—Jamie Gregg ’09—Jamie Tsai (HMP) ’09—Jandra Kalus ’73—
Janine Mele ’03—Jason Salber (HMP) ’02—Javier Nazario ’09—Jeff Sheneman (HMP) ’06—Jeff Smith ’91—Jeffery Kass ’75—
Jennifer R. Cranny ’01—Jerry Polasek ’09—Jesus Castro-Sandoval^ ’83—Jett Brady ’97—Jimmy Hammond ’05—Joel Dunlap
’92—John Barkley ’04—John Baxt ’74—John Brooks ’69—John Clement (HMP) ’04—John Gundzik ’91—John H. Liem^ ’77—John
J. Nisbet (HMP) ’00—John K. Miller ’95—John L. Howard ’90—John Labis ’03—John Melvin ’83—John R. Bodenhamer ’96—John
Romero ’76—John S. Michels ’13—John Thomas ’93—John W. Wright ’90—John Wilbanks^ ’77—Jon Edwards ’78—Jorges
Gonzales ’74—Jose Guerra-Paz ’77—Jose L. Enriquez ’16—Jose V. Watson (HMP) ’01—Joseph Chan ’99—Joseph Schniederjan
’09—Joshua D. Kuban (HMP) ’14—Juan J. Ibarra ’10—Juliet Wendt• ’92—Kanchan Phalak (HMP) ’14—Karuna A Munjal ’14—Kapil
Shroff (HMP) ’11—Karen Simmons ’88—Karl Chiang ’91—Kathryn M. Lewis^ ’89—Keith Light• ’02—Kenny Q. Sam ’16—Keton Shah
’17—Kirsten Warhoe^ ’94—Kris Pun (HMP) ’08—Kunal Shah ’17—Kuri Farid ’78—Lakhwant Singh ’10—Larry Gaines^ ’72—Larry
S. Carpenter^ ’88—Larry Yeager ’79—Lawrence D. Hochman^ ’96—Lawrence J. Scharf^ ’88—Lee Shukl^ ’87—Leroy Halouska
’75—Lillian Orson ’89—Linda Ann Hayman ’76—Lorell Ruiz-Flores ’17—Lori Young ’70—M. Amir Ibrahim• ’97—Marc Siegel ’88—
Marc Willis ’07—Marcus Calderon• ’73—Maria Patino ’05—Marianne Greenbaum ’99—Mariano Nasser ’76—Marina Soosaipillai
’80—Mario Polo (HMP) ’09—Mark E. Augspurger^ ’00—Mark Matthews ’92—Mark Miller ’77—Mark Pfleger (HMP) ’91—Mark
Sokolay ’75—Mark Stallworth ’93—Martin Cain ’89—Mary Round ’92—Mathew J. Rose ’13—Mathew R. Galfione ’12—Matt Stair
’09—Matty C. Artunduaga ’15—Mehmet Gurgun (HMP) ’93—Mel Thompson ’96—Mian A. Ibrahim ’97—Michael A. Marks (HMP)
’90—Michael Cagan ’74—Michael D. Bastasch^ (NP) ’03—Michael Driver^ ’82—Michael G. Gunlock ’99—Michael H. Hayman^
’77—Michael Jaimes ’07—Michael Kerley^ ’92—Michael Maiers ’11—Michael Nguyen ’10—Michael T. Sinopoli^ ’03—Mike
Silberman ’91—Mike Sloan (MP) ’91—Mike Smith ’91—Milton Gray ’69—Modesto Sanchez-Torres (NP) ’97—Mohammad Khan
’13—Monica L. Huang ’99—Monte F. Zarlingo (HMP) ’00—Moran E. Telesmanich ’17—Munish Chawla ’97—Nan Garrett ’03—Nancy
Anderson ’84—Nathan S. Floyd^ ’02—Nathan W. Uy^ ’01—Naveen Bikkasani ’03—Neil Cooper ’86—Nicholas Kutka• ’71—Noah N.
Chason ’12—Nora A. Janjan^ ’84—Norman Harris ’74—Paul B. Horwitz (HMP) ’01—Paul Weatherall ’87—Pauline L. Bui ’14—Pedro
Diaz ’06—Pedro Gonzalez ’11—Pekka Ahoniemi ’73—Peter Feola ’95—Peter Kvamme• ’95—Peter N. Fata ’16—Phil Mihm (HMP)
’97—Philip Trover ’77—Philip Weaver ’74—Pieretta Ferro ’71—R. Cody Mayo (HMP) ’14—Rafael Aponte ’88—Rafael Vicens ’13—Raj
Cheruvu ’00—Raj R. Chinnappan ’13—Ralph Norton ’75—Ralph Sharman ’74—Ramesh
Dhekne• ’75—Ramin Naeini (NP, HMP) ’10— Raphiel Benjamin ’69—Raul Meoz^ ’76—Ravi
J. Amin (NP) ’00—Ray Somcio ’15—Ray Ziegler ’69—Reed A. Shankwiler ’90—Reese
James ’81—Richard A. McGahan^ ’90— Richard Fremaux ’81—Richard H. Oria ’90—
Richard Parvey ’80—Richard Wilson (HMP) ’94—Rishi Arya ’16—Robert A. Gilbert^ ’94—
Robert B. Poliner ’90—Robert Davidson• ’91—Robert Denman ’97—Robert Francis
’82—Robert J. Feiwell (HMP) ’95—Robert Malone ’88—Robert McLaurin, Jr.^ ’84—
Robert Sims ’85 Robert Sonnemaker• ’76— Robert Tien ’88—Roger Selouan (NP, HMP)
’11—Rogue Ferreyro ’78—Rohit Ramanathan ’16—Ron Brociner ’85—Ron Dillee ’73—
Ronald Eikenhorst ’79—Ross Zeanah ’85— Roy Longuet ’79—Rudy Garcia ’07—Russell D.
Putnam ’00—Russell W. Wright (HMP) ’12— Ryan Skinner ’10—Sachin Patel (HMP) ’13—
Sager Naik ’04—Salmann Ahmed ’06—Samer Harmoush ’16—Sami Juma ’84—Samuel
Serna ’07—Sanaz Javadi ’15—Sandra Hatch^ ’91—Sanjiv Gala ’06—Sara L. Moorhead ’17—Sarfarraz Sadruddin ’15—Sarina W.
Fordice ’98—Sasi Yallampall ’12—Sean Raj ’16—Sergy Lemeshko ’10—Scott Dorfman ’93—Scott Meshberger ’98—Scott S. Lenobel
’12—Scott Sandberg (HMP) ’92—Scott Y. Harada ’15—Sidney Roberts^ ’91—Sima C. Artinian ’98—Simon Trubek ’05—Sophia
Chatziioannou• ’96—Srini Malini ’77—Stanley D. Clarke^ ’91—Stanley Lim ’04—Stephen C. Greco^ ’97—Stephen C. Liaw ’16—
Stephen Long• ’81—Stephen Parven ’86—Stephen R. Lee ’14—Steve Hong (HMP) ’02—Steve Sax ’86—Steven J. DiLeo ’98—Steven
R. Rinehouse ’95—Steven S. Chua ’15—Steven Yevich ’13—Susan Fan ’89—Susan Pinero ’85—Susan Weathers ’81—Tamara Ortiz
’11—Tara A. Hagopian ’13—Tara Sagebiel ’06—Terry O’Connor ’96—Terry Reed ’72—Tessa Hudspeth ’17—Tex Clifford† ’68—Thanh
John Van^ ’02—Thomas Dumler ’79—Thomas Hedrick ’75—Thomas L. Atlas (HMP) ’96—Thomas Saadeh ’14—Tim Dziuk^ ’94—Tim
Seipel ’08—Tim Tsai (NP) ’96—Todd Lanier ’92—Todd Minken ’94—Todd Samuels ’79—Todd Tibbetts (NP, HMP) ’06—Tom Kaminski
’87—Tom Lepsch ’87—Tomas Jimenez ’08—Travis D. Lyons (HMP) ’13—Vasu Rao ’94—Vera Selinko ’85—Veral D. Amin ’17—
Veronica Lenge ’10—Vincenzo K. Wong ’15—Vivek Bansal (HMP) ’12—Vivek C. Yagnik (HMP) ’01—Vivek G. Sahani ’16—W. Sam
Dennis^ ’80—Warren H. Moore• ’82—Wassel H. Beal• ’74—Wendy S. Carpenter (HMP) ’99—William Cunningham ’83—William D.
Permenter, Jr.^ ’89—William Jordan ’70—William Kent ’80—William Rogers ’74—Wilmer Moran ’78—Xiao Shi ’17—Zachary Martin
’86—Zeke Silva (NP) ’01- Zeyad A. Metwalli (HMP) ’14
SCB
HMP, Honorary Medical Physicist; NP, Naresh Prasad Scholar; •, Nuclear Medicine;
^, Radiotherapy; †, R.I.P.
To my wife, Maria Thelma Salina-Clarke, who supported me through all the long nights of writing.
GDC
This edition of Magnetic Resonance Imaging is dedicated to my friends Janice and Robert McNair in
recognition of their incredible service to Houston and especially to Baylor College of Medicine. I have
been so fortunate to call them close friends these past 50 years and to witness their success and con-
tinuing philanthropy which amazes me and which includes substantial financial support for …
• AD Players • Houston Symphony
• Boy Scouts of the Sam Houston Council • Houston Zoo
• Columbia College • M.D. Anderson Cancer Center
• DePelchin Children’s Center • Menninger Clinic
• Discovery Green • Rice University
• Hermann Park Conservancy • San Jacinto Girl Scouts
• HISD Fine Arts Program • Texas Children’s Hospital
• Hope Lodge Houston • Texas Heart Institute
• Houston Baptist University • The Cotswold Project
• Houston Community College • University of South Carolina
• Houston Grand Opera • United Way Computer Training Center
• Houston Police Department
Their support for Baylor College of Medicine has been exceptional. The new hospital and clinic facili-
ties are located on the McNair Campus. Thank you my friends.
This page intentionally left blank
P R E F A C E
When I began teaching/research at Baylor by an in-depth explanation of how MRI works
College of Medicine (BCM) in 1967 and a few (Parts III and IV). Parts V and VI of the text
years later when the Houston Community discuss the latest imaging methods. The final
College (HCC) was established, the subject section covers personnel and patient safety and
matter medical physics was a piece of cake. All I administration issues (Part VII).
had to teach were radiography and fluoroscopy. The American Board of Radiology (ABR) has
Today, all such students must know everything developed a certificate of Additional Qualifica-
known in 1967 plus all of the imaging modalities tions in MRI. The American Registry of Radio-
since, including MRI … in the same length of logic Technologists (ARRT) currently offers an
time! Now, the required fund of knowledge is advanced exam to qualify technologists in MRI.
ENORMOUS, and the demands on students are Both organizations will find that this text pre-
exceptional. sents the information needed for those advanced
In the early 1980s, magnetic resonance programs.
imaging (MRI) burst onto the scene as a diagnos- The American Board of Radiology also
tic imaging tool with even more intensity than includes substantial clinical questions involving
computed tomography (CT) had in the 1970s. Its MRI in its Core Examination and in the coming
similarities to CT are somewhat obvious, but the Certification Examination to be given first in
underlying physical principles are totally differ- 2018. Some fundamental knowledge of MRI
ent and challenging to imaging physicians and physics will be necessary for success by the can-
technologists alike. Whereas CT is an extension didate. The 40 RSNA/AAPM Web-based Instruc-
of x-ray imaging and the basic physics has been tionals currently include eight modules on MRI
well integrated into medical imaging training physics to be accessed by resident radiologists
programs, the physical basis for MRI has not and radiologic technologists alike.
been well integrated because it is fundamentally Kraig Emmert created the illustrations for
different. The technologist operating an MRI this edition. His talents and clever ideas added
system or the radiologist interpreting the MR humor and sense where concepts were sometimes
image must understand the basic principles of difficult to express.
this modality. Since the first edition of this book, published
This fourth edition presents the fundamentals in 1988, a wealth of advancements and changes
of conventional MRI and of the developing has occurred in this fast-moving field. This
fast imaging techniques of steady-state and accounts for the extensive revision throughout
transient-state gradient echo imaging. Concepts the book. I am especially indebted to Geoffrey
are presented in a way that is easily understood Clarke, PhD, University of Texas San Antonio,
by students, technologists, and physicians who for his contributions. As I am now late in
have little or no background in mathematics the fourth quarter of this game of life and trying
and physics. Interested readers will find a more to get to overtime, I am especially pleased
complex mathematical development in Appendix that Dr. Clarke is committed to continuing this
A: “The Bloch Equations.” project.
The text begins with an overview and an And I am pleased to repeat a statement of mine
introduction of the fundamentals of electricity first published decades ago in the third edition
and magnetism (Parts I and II). This is followed of “Radiologic Science for Technologists” because
ix