Table Of ContentMACMILLAN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page ii
EDITORIAL BOARD
Herman Bieber Howard Geller
Engineering Consultant Executive Director
Kenilworth, NJ American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy
Alan Chachich David Greene
Center for Transportation Studies Energy Division
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Fred Denny
Joseph Priest
Department of Electrical and Computer
Department of Physics
Engineering
Miami University
Louisiana State University
Rosalie Ruegg
Bernard Finn
Advanced Technology Program
National Museum of American History
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Smithsonian Institution
John Firor Harold Wallace
Environmental and Societal Impacts Group National Museum of American History
National Center for Atmospheric Research Smithsonian Institution
Ellen J. Zeman
Burlington, Vermont
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page iv
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy
Copyright © 2001 Macmillian Reference USA, an imprint of Gale Group
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in
wrtiting from the Publisher.
Macmillan Reference USA Macmillan Reference USA
1633 Broadway 27500 Drake Rd.
New York, NY10019 Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 00-062498
Printed in the United States of America
Printing number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
LLiibbrraarryy ooff CCoonnggrreessss CCaattaallooggiinngg--iinn--PPuubblliiccaattiioonn DDaattaa
Macmillan encyclopedia of energy / John Zumerchik, editor in chief.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-865021-2 (set : hc). — ISBN 0-02-865018-2 (vol. 1). — ISBN 0-02-865019-0 (vol. 2). —
ISBN 0-02-865020-4 (vol. 3).
1. Power resources—Encyclopedias. I. Title: Encyclopedia of Energy. II. Zumerchik, John
TJ163.25 .M33 2000
00-062498
621.042’03 dc21
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page v
CONTENTS
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
List of Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Acronymns and Standard Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
Macmillan Encyclopedia of Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Energy Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
v
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page vi
Editorial and Production Staff
Brian Kinsey, Charles B. Montney
Project Editors
Debra Kirby, Jeffrey Lehman, and Jane Malonis
Contributing Editors
Shawn Beall, Matthew May, Katherine Millson
Assistant Editors
Linda S. Hubbard
Editorial Director
William Drennan, Amy Lucas, Philip Jochnowitz,
Anne Janette Johnson, Jeanette Piccirelli, and Annette P. Swanson
Copyeditors
Laura Avery, Adam Goodman, Andrew Homburg, Jaime Noces, and Jennifer Smith
Proofreaders
Linda Kenny Sloan
Indexer
Julie Juengling
Permissions Assistant
Cynthia Baldwin
Art Director
Robyn V. Young
Senior Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content
Randy Bassett
Imaging Supervisor
Ronald D. Montgomery
Manager, Data Capture Services
Beverly Jendrowski, Frances L. Monroe
Data Capture Specialists
Nikkita Bankston, Katrina Coach, Teresa Elsey, Cynthia Jones, Joseph Jorgenson, Elizabeth Pilette
Data Capture Associates
Mary Beth Trimper
Manager, Composition and Electronic Prepress
Evi Seoud
Assistant Manager, Composition Purchasing and Electronic Prepress
Dorthy Maki
Manufacturing Manager
Wendy Blurton
Senior Buyer
Datapage Technologies International
Typesetting
MMaaccmmiillllaann LLiibbrraarryy RReeffeerreennccee UUSSAA
Elly Dickason
Publisher
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page vii
PREFACE
In the mid-1970s, many environmental organizations more forward-looking sources such as wind, solar,
and energy experts predicted a bleak future of wide- fuel cells, and nuclear fusion.
spread economic and social disruption caused by The Encyclopediacovers the major energy-using
energy scarcities and continually rising costs of fossil technologies and examines the advances that have
fuels. These predictions never came true. In fact, the been made in terms of performance and efficiency.
opposite occurred—fossil fuel prices in the year 2000 This is an important approach because the unfore-
are actually lower than the brief peaks that were seen technology of tomorrow might be far different
reached after the OPEC oil embargo of 1973. Despite from what exists today, leading to an alteration in pat-
this reality, there continue to be long-term energy terns of energy consumption. Only by improving
problems for which there are no easy answers. how experts predict how technological innovation
Foremost is availability, related to the unsustainabili- will alter energy consumption will we be able to
ty of ever more people demanding an ever-declining avoid making erroneous energy predictions similar to
supply of fossil fuels. Second is growth in electricity those made in the 1970s. A large number of entries
demand, which requires more power plants in an era related to transportation are included because this
of growing political opposition to the greater use of sector of the economy faces the greatest challenges in
fossil fuels and nuclear power. Third is pollution, the future with regard to energy use. The reliance on
because the more power plants and vehicles there are, imported petroleum and the difficulty in switching to
the harder it is to reduce harmful emissions. And another energy source make the transportation sector
finally, there is global warming, the contentiously particularly vulnerable to supply disruptions and wild
debated link between energy-related carbon dioxide price fluctuations. Subjects related to electricity are
emissions and climate change. also well represented because of the rapid pace of
The three-volume Macmillan Encyclopedia of growth in the field of electric technology.
Energyis an interdisciplinary work with a very ambi- The interdisciplinary approach of the Encyclo-
tious scope that addresses these continuing problems. pedialed to different approaches for different types of
Entries represent the fields of physics, chemistry, articles. Besides the historical articles covering the
biology, geophysics, and engineering, as well as histo- sources, uses, and social views of energy, many tech-
ry, economics, psychology, sociology, and ethics. nology articles take a historical approach to discussing
Traditional energy concepts such as electricity, ther- the invention and innovation of the technology,
modynamics, and conservation of energy are includ- especially the pace of innovation and energy efficien-
ed, but so are less obvious concepts such as combus- cy improvements between 1970 and 2000. Sixty biog-
tion, catalysts, propulsion, and matter and energy. raphies provide information on specific scientists and
The traditional fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and jet engineers who made major contributions to the
fuel are included, but so are the alternative fuels such understanding of energy and the related technologies.
as methanol, synthetic fuel, and hydrogen. The tradi- Since environmental and safety issues are important
tional energy sources such as coal, natural gas, petro- to the story of energy, these issues are addressed
leum, and nuclear fission are included, but so are the throughout the Encyclopedia.
vii
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page viii
PREFACE
The Encyclopedia includes 253 alphabetically energy decisions, but they are not themselves consid-
arranged entries written by 170 authors. The text is ered to be energy decisions. For example, driving to
supplemented with more than 600 photographs, work instead of walking, purchasing bigger homes
illustrations, sidebars, and maps. Entries contain a set and vehicles instead of smaller ones, and acquiring
of cross-references to related entries within the set, as the latest plug-in appliance all have short- and long-
well as a bibliography of related books and journal term energy-related consequences. Although each
articles to guide readers who want to learn more individual decision has an insignificant effect on
about a given topic. The front matter in Volume 1 overall consumption, once the behavior becomes a
includes a list of entry topics, and the back matter in norm, the effect can be very significant for society
Volume 3 contains both an extensive timeline of since reversal is often impossible.
important dates in energy history and a comprehen- Production of this three-volume set has involved
sive subject index. the efforts of many people. In particular, I want to
The purpose of this publication is to provide an thank my associate editors, Herm Bieber, Alan
up-to-date reference guide for people who want full, Chachich, Fred Denny, Barney Finn, John Firor,
current, trustworthy information about all aspects of Howard Geller, David Greene, Joseph Priest, Rosalie
energy. This includes individuals who want more Ruegg, Harold Wallace, and Ellen Zeman for their
information than they read in newspapers or maga- suggestions with regard to the organization and con-
zines, high school and college students who want tent of the work and for lending their expertise in
information for class discussions and papers, people evaluating and reviewing manuscripts. I would also
looking for expert information on which to base their like to thank the contributors for their cooperation in
everyday energy-related decisions, and scholars who ensuring that the content and level of presentation of
want a review of interdisciplinary research. their entries was appropriate for our audience.
The Encyclopedia will help to foster a greater I am equally indebted to the staff at Macmillan
awareness of the historical significance of energy and Reference USAfor their prodding and pushing that
the relationship between energy and technology. helped speed the completion of this work. In partic-
Decisions that are related to technology and that ular, I want to thank Charlie Montney and Brian
affect energy consumption are made on a regular Kinsey for their day-to-day management of the proj-
basis. However, since energy is mostly invisible (one ect and Elly Dickason, the publisher of Macmillan,
cannot see a kilowatt of electricity or a cubic foot of for her support in producing the work you see before
natural gas), these decisions are not commonly you.
thought of as energy decisions even when the energy John Zumerchik
aspect is an essential aspect. Choices related to trans- New York City
portation, shelter, comfort, and recreation all entail 2000
viii
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page ix
LIST OF ARTICLES
A Auditing of Energy Use
Michael R. Muller
Acid Rain
Tom Butler Automobile Performance
Charles A. Amann
Aerodynamics
John D. Anderson Aviation Fuel
William F. Taylor
Agriculture
Hosein Shapouri
Roger Conway B
Air Conditioning Batteries
Bernard A. Nagengast John Zumerchik
Aircraft Bearings
John D. Anderson Jiang Long
Air Pollution Becquerel, Alexandre-Edmund (1820-1891)
Kenneth Green Stig Steenstrup
Air Quality, Indoor Behavior
Satish Kumar John Zumerchik
Air Travel Bernoulli, Daniel (1700-1782)
F. Robert van der Linden Douglas Quinney
Alexanderson, Ernst Frederik Werner (1878-1975) Bethe, Hans Albrecht (1906- )
Albert Abramson Silvan S. Schweber
Alternative Fuels and Vehicles Bicycling
John Zumerchik John Schubert
John Zumerchik
Ampère, André-Marie (1775-1836)
Robert Sier Big Bang Theory
Don Lichtenberg
Animal and Human Energy
David Mulcahy Biofuels
Deborah L. Mowery
Appliances
David B. Goldstein Biological Energy Use, Cellular Processes of
David E. Harris
Archimedes (287-212 BC)
Douglas Quinney Biological Energy Use, Ecosystem Functioning of
Allison Brody
Atmosphere
Dennis G. Baker Black, Joseph (1728-1799)
Anita Baker-Blocker Robert Sier
ix
eoe vol1fm 10/22/02 8:27 AM Page x
LIST OF ARTICLES
Building Design, Commercial Communications and Energy
Jeffrey A. Johnson Gilbert Held
William Steven Taber, Jr.
Conservation of Energy
Building Design, Energy Codes and Joseph Priest
Jeffrey A. Johnson
Conservation Supply Curves
David Conover
Alan K. Meier
Building Design, Residential Arthur H. Rosenfeld
Sam Rashkin
Consumption
Japhet Koteen
John Zumerchik
Control Systems, History of
C
Anibal T. De Almeida
Capacitors and Ultracapacitors
Hashem Akbari
Alan B. McEwen
Cool Communities
Capital Investment Decisions
Hashem Akbari
Sue McNeil
Arthur H. Rosenfeld
Carnot, Nicolas Leonard Sadi (1796-1832)
Culture and Energy Usage
Joseph F. Mulligan
Laura Nader
Carson, Rachel
Curie, Marie Sklodowska (1867-1934)
Linda Sargent Wood
Margaret H. Venable
Catalysts
T. Leon Venable
Joe W. Hightower
Burtron H. Davis
D
Charcoal
Demand-Side Management
Herman Bieber
Joseph Eto
Chemical Energy, Historical Evolution of the Use of
Diesel, Rudolph (1858-1913)
Barry L. Tarmy
David B. Sicilia
Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emmanuel (1822-1888)
Barbara Flume-Gorczyca Diesel Cycle Engines
Robert N. Brady
Climatic Effects
Kenneth Green Diesel Fuel
Robert N. Brady
Coal, Consumption of
Anthony Fainberg District Heating and Cooling
Morris A. Pierce
Coal, Production of
Jerry C. Tien Domestic Energy Use
Morris A. Pierce
Coal, Transportation and Storage of
Jamie N. Heller Drivetrains
Stan M. Kaplan Charles A. Amann
Cogeneration
Joseph Priest E
Cogeneration Technologies Economically Efficient Energy Choices
Morris A. Pierce William S. Peirce
Combustion Economic Externalities
Kenneth Brezinsky Samuel N. Addy
x
