Table Of ContentMariusz Ziółkowski
Nicola Masini
José M. Bastante
Editors
Machu Picchu
in Context
Interdisciplinary Approaches
to the Study of Human Past
Machu Picchu in Context
· ·
Mariusz Ziółkowski Nicola Masini
José M. Bastante
Editors
Machu Picchu in Context
Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Study
of Human Past
Editors
MariuszZiółkowski NicolaMasini
CentreforAndeanStudies CNR-InstituteofHeritageScience
UniversityofWarsaw TitoScalo,Potenza,Italy
Warsaw,Poland
JoséM.Bastante
NationalArchaeologicalParkofMachu
Picchu
DecentralizedDirectorateofCulture
ofCusco
Cusco,Peru
ISBN978-3-030-92765-3 ISBN978-3-030-92766-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92766-0
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Foreword by Fernando Astete
TheHistoricalSanctuary—NationalArchaeologicalParkofMachuPicchu(SHM-
PANM) is a mixed heritage site of Exceptional Universal Value, which must be
protected,maintainedandconservedasapriority.Thefactthatitishometomorethan
sixtyarchaeologicalmonumentsinterconnectedbyanetworkofpre-Hispanicroads,
anditsharmonywiththenaturalenvironmentmakeitaplaceofexceptionalbeauty
and an unlimited source of information for the different branches of knowledge.
Oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesoftheareaarethedifferencesinaltitude.Interms
ofminimumaltitudes,attheeasternendoftheSHM-PANM,thelowerpartofthe
Salapunku archaeological monument reaches 2,625 metresabove sealevel (masl),
whileatthewesternend,attheconfluenceoftheAhobambaandVilcanotarivers,
the altitude is 1,725 metres above sea level (masl). In reference to the maximum
altitudes,inthesouthoftheSHM-PANM,thesnow-cappedSalkantayreaches6,271
masl and, in the northeast, the summit of Waqaywillka (Verónica) reaches 5,750
masl.
The Inka had a thorough knowledge of geography and the tutelary deities of
the area, which allowed them to define a suitable area for the construction of the
MachuPicchullaqtaandtheotherarchaeologicalmonumentsintheregion.Inthis
way, a strategic location was determined from a religious and economic point of
view,fromwhereanextensiveterritorycouldbeoptimallyadministeredandaccess
totheenormousnaturalresourcesoftheeasternchainoftheAndescouldbegained.
This llaqta has been habitually described as marvellous, extraordinary, fabu-
lous, mystical and telluric, as the maximum expression of Inca architecture and
engineering, the perfect symbiosis between human work and nature, among other
appellatives,havingbeenstudiedfromthepointofviewofvariousdisciplines.
In addition to the sacred geography in which it is immersed and the Vilcanota
river surrounding it on three sides, the quality of the constructions in the llaqta is
alsoadeterminingfactorindefiningitssacredcharacter,aswellasanotherelement
of utmost importance: water as a resource that reaches the nuclear area through a
complexsystemofcanalisationfromtheslopesoftheMachuPicchumountain.
InAndeanconstructionrationality,architecturalworksareadaptedtothetopog-
raphy of the terrain by terracing. This rationality is generally opposed to the
v
vi ForewordbyFernandoAstete
contemporary conception, where it is generally preferred to achieve a more or
less homogeneous surface to begin the construction process. The construction of
the Machu Picchu llaqta required the participation of specialists in architecture,
engineering and astronomy, as well as a great deal of manpower and thousands of
man-hoursfortheworkofpreparingthelandandtransportingmaterials.
Inkaarchitecturerepresentstheoriginalideaofwhatinmoderntimesisknown
asorganicarchitecture.Thatistosay,theInkaknewhowtotakeadvantageofthe
granitechaosofthesitetobuilddifferenttypesofstructuresfordifferentpurposes,
suchasceremonial,housingandproductionenclosures,amongothers,bymeansof
adequatestabilisationandprotectionoftheslopes.
The processing, analysis, contrasting and cross-checking of all the information
concerning the SHM-PANM disseminated from the different perspectives of the
social and natural sciences since 1912, has allowed us to achieve a better under-
standing of the cultural development that took place in the area and the adjacent
spaces;primarilyabouttheoriginandfunctionofthellaqtaofMachuPicchu,where
most of the archaeological, conservation and restoration interventions have been
carriedout.
TheSHM-PANM,andinparticulartheMachuPicchullaqtawithinit,istheicon
of our national identity and the best-known image of Peru worldwide. Therefore,
the research and conservation work that is carried out is permanent and allows us
to deepen our knowledge of the pre-Hispanic societies that developed in its area,
aswellas,throughefficientmanagement,toguaranteetheproperenjoymentofthis
heritageasset,ensuringitsintegrityforfuturegenerations.
This publication is the result of a long collaboration between the Head of the
PANM,ledbymyselfandlaterbyJoséBastante,andtheCentreforAndeanStudies
oftheUniversityofWarsaw,ledbyDrMariuszZiółkowski.IamgladthatDrNicola
MasiniandhisteamfromtheConsiglioNazionaledelleRicercheinItalyhavebeen
invited to this fruitful international collaboration and have contributed with their
valuablestudies.
This book presents research carried out by different professionals under strict
scientificstandardsandcontributestotheclarificationofnumeroustopics,someof
which had not been addressed in previous studies. This type of publication brings
useverclosertoathoroughunderstandingofthesocio-culturalprocessesthattook
place in the area from the Late Formative period, through the Inka and Colonial
periods,tothepresentday.
FernandoAstete
DirecciónDesconcentradadeCultura
Cusco,Peru
Foreword by Ivan Ghezzi
The literature on the Incas, their empire, culture, architecture, infrastructure, and
theirothertechnicalandtechnologicalachievementsisvast.Yet,muchlessisknown
about the world-famous XVth century Machu Picchu site, located on a hilltop in
the Urubamba River valley of Cuzco, Peru. The present volume, a compilation of
eighteenpaperscoveringawiderangeoftopics,helpsfillthatimportantgap.
ThissampleofthemanymultidisciplinarystudiescarriedoutattheMachuPicchu
siteisorganisedintothreesections.PartIoffersthecontextnecessarytounderstand
thissettlement.Itbeginswiththephysiographicandenvironmentalsetting,whichis
consideredaresultofadvancedenvironmentalengineeringtechniques,aswellasa
sanctuaryfortheconservationofthepark´soutstandingbiodiversity.Achapteron
thegeologicalsettingofthesite,mainlygranitoidbodieswithinthemainriftsystem,
detailstheimportantgeomorphologicalrisksinthesurroundingsofMachuPicchu,
andapreliminarymasterplanforthemitigationandmanagementofinstabilitiesin
itssteepslopes.Thenextchaptercomparesandcontraststhe“historicalchronology”,
developedbyJohnH.Rowein1945,andtheabsolute(radiocarbon)chronologyto
understandtheexpansionoftheIncastate,usingthebrand-newcalibrationcurves
IntCal20andSHCal20.Inthefollowingchapter,theInca“buildingculture”isusedto
offerthecontextnecessarytounderstandthearchitectureofMachuPicchu,whose
building techniques are extremely complex and notable for their “almost perfect
geometric and harmonic articulation”. Finally, a systematic archaeoastronomical
approachisappliedtorevealalignmentswithamarkedpreferencefororientations
towards sunrise on the June Solstice from structures and architectural ensembles
locatedinthemainMachuPicchusiteoritssurroundings.
Part II consists of another five chapters related to the application of the natural
sciences and technology to archaeological sites. Earth observation technologies
applied to the study of cultural heritage in the first chapter demonstrates the great
valueofremotesensingtoprotectthenaturalandculturallandscape.Thefollowing
chapterpresentstheresultsofthefirstarchaeogeophysicalresearchatMachuPicchu,
derived from georadar and geomagnetic surveys, with the goal of exploring the
subsoilinsearchofpotentialburiedstructures.Next,achapterpresentstheadvan-
tages of airborne LiDAR technology to detect architectural and archaeological
vii
viii ForewordbyIvanGhezzi
remainshiddenundertheforestcoverofthesanctuary,especiallywhenitissupple-
mentedbyclose-rangeUAVplatformsthatallowformoredetaileddatacollection
in selected areas. The fourth chapter in this section presents a metrological study
of the Machu Picchu citadel, applying the cosine quantogram method to the data
provided by the 3D laser survey, with the aim of unveiling standards in the Inca
measuring system. It identified two separate systems of Inca measures, based on
differentbasicunits.Finally,theresultsofthearchaeologicalresearchperformedat
theChachabambasitearepresentedanddiscussed.
Part III presents ten chapters with new data on archaeological and historical
researchperformedonthesite,aswellasotherrelatedsitesandinfrastructureatthe
MachuPicchuNationalArchaeologicalPark.First,itpresentsthenewarchaeological
andinterdisciplinaryresearchatthesite,includinganewsectorisation.Second,the
archaeologicalandhydraulicresearchatthe“waterfountain”(phaqchainQuechua
language)ofChachabamba,tosetthefunctionofarchitecturalsolutionsandmodifi-
cationsrecordedatthissite.Third,itpresentsresultsoftheUnderwaterArchaeology
programinthelakessituatednearthepiedmontofSalkantaymountain,whereritual
ceremonies dedicated to the lakes were performed. Additionally, the pictographs
(theso-calledquillqasinQuechua)locatedatseveralrockywallsalongtheLower
Vilcanota basin, related to the Marcavalle Formative culture. It also contains an
ethnohistoricalstudyofpost-Conquestdocumentsonthesiteanditssurroundings,
whichthrowslightontheevolutionoflandtenureandtoponyms.Anotherchapter
coversthechemicalstudyofthebiodeteriorationofthestonescomposingthestruc-
turesofMachuPicchu.ThefinalchapterpresentsthelogisticsofIncaconstruction
processesfromdatayieldedbythestudyoffoursignificantbuildingsatthesite.
Wewarmlywelcomethisvolume,whichbringstogetherdetaileddataandresults
from various interdisciplinary studies carried out at Machu Picchu over the last
decade,withemphasisonthescientificandtechnologicalapplicationstoarchaeology,
asanimportantcontributiontotheunderstandingofthismagnificentWorldHeritage
Site,andtothefieldofIncastudiesingeneral.
Ivan Ghezzi
PontificiaUniversidadCatólicadel
Perú
InstitutodeInvestigaciones
Arqueológicas
Lima,Peru
Introduction
Archaeology is today, like few other disciplines, in radical transformation and
committedtoovercominganydichotomybetweensocialandexactsciences.
Theepistemologicalleapisevident.
Theconceptofsciencesubsidiarytoarchaeologyhaslongsincepassed.Archae-
ologytodayincreasinglyinterpretsthematerialevidenceofthepast,ascomponents
ofcomplexnaturalandculturalsystems,throughinterdisciplinaryapproachesthat
integrateitwithothersciencessuchasphysics,geography,geosciences,chemistry,
remotesensing,geophysicsandartificialintelligence.
Therefore, the way in which knowledge is acquired (ultimately the constitutive
elementsofthehistoricalnarrative)hasbeenexpanding.Newquestionsarise,new
horizonsopenupforresearchwhich,thankstoincreasinglysophisticatedmethods
andtechnologies,isabletopenetratemoreandmorethehistoricaldepthandtoallow
amoreprecisereconstructionofthepast.
Researchisthuscontributingcentralitytoglobalterritorialapproaches,passing
from the priority of the site to that of the territorial and landscape context, with
multidisciplinaryandmultifactorialinterpretationsofarchaeologicalandgeological
records.
Hence the volume “Machu Picchu in context. Interdisciplinary approaches to
the study of human past”which, starting from a consolidated (but in some cases
fragmentary) state of the art of research, proposes an overall approach based on
interdisciplinary integration and the useof the mostadvanced survey and imaging
technologies,withparticularattentiontotherelationshipbetweenMachuPicchuand
itssurroundings.
Inthisvolume,wepresenttothepublicaseriesofrecentinterdisciplinaryworks
on the Llaqta of Machu Picchu and its satellite sites, including Chachabamba, the
MiradorofInkaraqayandtheSalkantayMountain.
SuchstudiesaretheresultofscientificcooperationbetweentheNationalArchae-
ological Park of Machu Picchu (under the direction of Fernando Astete and Jose
ix
x Introduction
Bastante1) and Centre for Andean Studies at the University of Warsaw2 (directed
byMariuszZiółkowski),towhichtheCNRhasbeenaddedsince2016throughthe
ITACAMissiondirectedbyNicolaMasinibyCNR-ISPC.3
TheNationalParkofMachuPicchuiscoveringanareaof37,302hectares.Its
locatedinthevalleyoftheVilcanota–UrubambariverintheregionofCusco,province
of Urubamba (Peru). The central part is a well-known agricultural, administrative
and ceremonial complex of Machu Picchu. It is connected by a complicated road
networkwitharound60archaeologicalsites,whichperformeddifferentfunctions,
includingagriculturalandceremonialones.UnderstandingwhatthellaqtaofMachu
Picchuwasitself,whatfunctionsitperformerandhowitdevelopeddependsnotonly
onthestudyofthemaincentre,i.e.theLlaqta,butalsoontheresearchofitsrelation
withsurroundingsatellitesites.
TheMiradordeInkaraqayisasmallstructuresituatedonthenorth,quitesteep,
slopesofWaynapicchumountain.ItislocatedinoneofthezonesoftheLlaqta,ata
distanceofapproximately2hourwalkfromthenucleararea.Architecturalremains,
whicharequitewellpreserved,consistofthreeparallelwallsplacedperpendicularly
tothesteepslopeofthehill.Thelowerwallservesasaretainingwallstabilisingthe
footingsofthebuildingsituatedabove.Atthesametime,itcreatesanarrow(ca.1.75
m)platformfacilitatingaccessinfrontofthebuilding.Themiddlewallisca.1.25
m wide and its façade is preserved to a height of ca. 3.5 m. The structure appears
tobeisolatedfromanyhabitationsettlementanditssmallsizesuggeststhatitwas
usedbyaverysmallgroupofpeople.ThepreviousresearchindicatedthatMirador
deInkaraqaywasaverypreciselyplanedastronomicobservatory,whichpermitted
theobservationoftherisingSunandthePleiades.
1TheresearchundertakenintheHistoricSantuary—NationalArchaeologicalParkofMachuPicchu
isdoneintheframeworkoftheInterdisciplinaryResearchProgramoftheDecentralizedDirectorate
ofCultureofCusco/MinistryofCultureofPeru.
2Thisresearchwasstartedintheframeworkoftheproject:Functionofthesatellitearchaeological
sitesinthevicinityofMachuPicchu:InkaraqayandChachabambaandthehighmountainlakeson
thefootofNevadoSalcantay(Peru),sponsoredbyagrantOPUS(number2015/19/B/HS3/03557)
fromtheNationalScienceCentreofPoland.TheresearchinChachabambawasalsosponsoredin
theframeworkoftheproject:Armakuna:ritualfunctionsoftheInca“baths”intheChachabamba
ceremonialcomplex(HistoricSanctuaryofMachuPicchu,Peru)byaGrantPreludiumnumber
2015/19/NHS3/03626fromtheNationalScienceCentreofPoland.Thelogisticoftheresearchof
thePolishteamwasalsosupportedbythePolishMinistryofEducationandSciencewithinSPUB
grants./ The project was also attendedby agroup of Polish experts ledby prof. Jacek Kos´ciuk
fromthe3DScanningandModelingLaboratoryattheFacultyofArchitectureoftheWrocław
TechnicalUniversity.Aspartoftheproject,cooperationwithotherexpertswasalsoestablished:dr.
AdineGavazzi,anarchitectfromtheUniversityofGenoa;prof.GiuseppeOrefici,archaeologist,
anexpertofrockartandthedirectoroftheItalianCentroItalianoStudieRicercheArcheologiche
Precolombiane(CISRAP);prof.AlanHogg,DirectoroftheWaikatoRadiocarbonLaboratory(New
Zealand);prof.AndrzejRakowskifromtheDepartmentofRadioisotopes,SilesianUniversityof
Technology(Poland)andprof.EwaBulska,chemist,DirectorofBiologicalandChemicalResearch
Centre,UniversityofWarsaw.
3ItalianMissionincludesalsoaresearchgroupofCNR-IMAA(directedbyRosaLasaponara).
OtheritalianexpertsbyISPRA-Italy(C.Margottini,D.Spizzichino)areamongthecoauthorsof
thisbook.
