M. Loreau & al. 2022: Ecological & societal consequences of biodiversity loss.

2022·13.9 MB·English

The Ecological and Societal Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
SCIENCES
Ecosystems and Environment,
Field Directors – Dominique Joly and Françoise Gaill
Biodiversity, Subject Head – Fabienne Aujard
The Ecological and Societal
Consequences of
Biodiversity Loss

Coordinated by
Michel Loreau
Andy Hector
Forest Isbell
First published 2022 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2021950400

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78945-072-9
ERC code:
LS8 Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Biology
LS8_1 Ecosystem and community ecology, macroecology
LS8_2 Biodiversity, conservation biology, conservation genetics
Contents
Introduction. The Ecological and Societal Consequences
of Biodiversity Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Michel LOREAU, Andy HECTOR, and Forest ISBELL
Part 1. Biodiversity and Ecosystems: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 1. Biodiversity Change: Past, Present, and Future . . . . . 3
Andy PURVIS and Forest ISBELL
1.1. Setting the stage: difficulties of documenting, understanding,
and communicating biodiversity change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2. Biodiversity change in Earth history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3. Pre-industrial biodiversity change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4. Biodiversity change in the “Anthropocene” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5. Future of biodiversity change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6. Future of biodiversity change research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 2. Biodiversity: Concepts, Dimensions, and Measures . . 25
Anne CHAO and Robert K. COLWELL
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2. Progress in measuring taxonomic diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
vi The Ecological and Societal Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
2.3. Taxonomic diversity and evenness measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1. Taxonomic diversity: effective number of species . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2. Evenness measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4. A unified framework integrating diversities (TD, PD, and FD) . . . . . 34
2.4.1. Phylogenetic diversity as a special case of attribute diversity . . . 35
2.4.2. Functional diversity as a special case of attribute diversity . . . . 37
2.5. Diversity in space and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.1. Coral data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6.2. Saproxylic beetle data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 3. Ecosystems: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Amelia A. WOLF, Sarah K. ORTIZ, and Chase J. RAKOWSKI
3.1. An introduction to ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1.1. Ecosystem extent: abiotic factors in terrestrial systems . . . . . . . 48
3.1.2. Ecosystem extent: biotic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.1.3. Major ecosystem types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.4. Meta-ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.5. Ecosystem dynamics and change over time and space . . . . . . . 56
3.2. Ecosystem functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3. Ecosystem stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4. Ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5. Human alterations to ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Part 2. How Biodiversity Affects Ecosystem Functioning . . . . . . 73
Chapter 4. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning:
Theoretical Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Shaopeng WANG
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.2. Biodiversity: from causes to consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3. Why does biodiversity promote ecosystem functioning? . . . . . . . . . 81
4.4. Trophic diversity and ecosystem functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5. BEF over time and space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Contents vii
4.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 5. Experimental Evidence for How Biodiversity
Affects Ecosystem Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Mary I. O’CONNOR, Joey R. BERNHARDT, Keila STARK, Jacob USINOWICZ, and
Matthew A. WHALEN
5.1. The role of experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.1.1. The experiment that launched a thousand experiments . . . . . . . 98
5.1.2. How do we gain knowledge from experiments? . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.2. BEF experiments as tests of theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2.1. Diversity as a driver of change in ecosystem function . . . . . . . 103
5.2.2. Evidence for selection and complementarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.3. Experimental evidence for key assumptions of BEF theory . . . . 108
5.2.4. Testing for diversity effects under broader abiotic and
biotic conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.5. Diversity effects in space and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3. Experiments that extend classic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.1. Does extinction order matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.2. Experiments that bridge BEF and modern coexistence
theory (MCT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3.3. Experimental evidence for effects of biodiversity on
ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Chapter 6. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning in
Observational Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Laura E. DEE, Kaitlin KIMMEL, and Meghan HAYDEN
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2. A historical perspective: returning to observational data . . . . . . . . . 120
6.3. Benefits of observational data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.4. The challenge of causal inference in observational studies . . . . . . . . 125
6.5. Observational studies: results and evidence to date . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.5.1. Across dimensions of biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.5.2. Across ecosystem functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5.3. Across ecosystem types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.5.4. Summary of current evidence gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
viii The Ecological and Societal Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
6.6. Reviewing study design to date: how are studies analyzing
observational data? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.6.1. Moving forward: improving study designs for observational
data and analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.7. Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Part 3. How Biodiversity Affects Ecosystem Stability . . . . . . . . . 145
Chapter 7. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability: New
Theoretical Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Michel LOREAU
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2. What is stability? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3. Why does local biodiversity promote ecosystem stability? . . . . . . . . 154
7.4. Scaling up diversity−stability relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.6. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Chapter 8. What Do Biodiversity Experiments Tell Us About
Biodiversity and Ecological Stability Relationships? . . . . . . . . . 167
Lin JIANG and Qianna XU
8.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.2. Insight from models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8.3. A brief account of earlier diversity–stability experiments . . . . . . . . 170
8.4. The relationships between biodiversity and temporal stability . . . . . . 170
8.4.1. Grassland biodiversity experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8.4.2. Forest biodiversity experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.4.3. Aquatic biodiversity experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.4.4. Microbial biodiversity experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.4.5. How general are the effects of species diversity on
temporal stability? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.4.6. Other dimensions of biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.5. The relationships between biodiversity and resistance/resilience . . . . 180
8.6. The relevance of biodiversity experiments to real-world ecosystems . . 181
8.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Contents ix
8.8. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 9. Biodiversity and Temporal Stability of Naturally
Assembled Ecosystems Across Spatial Scales
in a Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Yann HAUTIER and Fons VAN DER PLAS
9.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2. Biodiversity–stability relationships along natural gradients . . . . . . . 193
9.3. Global change drivers and biodiversity–stability relationships . . . . . 196
9.4. Contribution of dominant and rare species to stability . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.5. Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.6. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Part 4. How Biodiversity Affects Human Societies . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Chapter 10. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Managed
Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Bernhard SCHMID and Christian SCHÖB
10.1. A brief history of the role of biodiversity in managed ecosystems . . . 213
10.2. Biodiversity as the basis for a new green revolution . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.3. Biodiversity in agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3.1. Crop genetic diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.3.2. Species diversity in grasslands and intercropping . . . . . . . . . 218
10.3.3. Farm-scale diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
10.4. Biodiversity in forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.4.1. Evidence for positive biodiversity effects on forest
ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
10.4.2. Ecosystem services provided by agroforestry . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.5. Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
10.5.1. Potential of biodiversity to support the next green revolution . . 224
10.5.2. Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
10.5.3. Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.6. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
10.7. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
x The Ecological and Societal Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
Chapter 11. Biodiversity and Human Health: On the Necessity
of Combining Ecology and Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Jean-François GUÉGAN, Benjamin ROCHE, and Serge MORAND
11.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
11.2. Microbial biodiversity is a key component of ecosystems . . . . . . . 235
11.3. The linkages between biodiversity and human infectious diseases . . 238
11.4. The evolution of human society is punctuated by
epidemiological phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.5. The new ecology and evolution of zoonotic and sapronotic
establishment in the Anthropocene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11.6. The process of globalization of human infectious diseases . . . . . . . 246
11.7. A livestock-dominated planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11.8. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.9. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
11.10. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Chapter 12. Economic Valuation of Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Seth BINDER
12.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.2. What valuation is and is not . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.3. Non-market economic valuation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.3.1. Production function methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.3.2. Revealed preference methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
12.3.3. Stated preference methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
12.3.4. Benefit transfer methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
12.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
12.5. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Part 5. Zooming Out: Biodiversity in a Changing Planet . . . . . . . 281
Chapter 13. Feedbacks Between Biodiversity and
Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Akira S. MORI, Takehiro SASAKI, Maiko KAGAMI, Takeshi MIKI, and
Moriaki YASUHARA
13.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283