Table Of ContentLT. GEN. NED ALMOND, USA: A GROUND COMMANDER’S
CONFLICTING VIEW WITH AIRMEN OVER CAS DOCTRINE AND
EMPLOYMENT
BY MICHAEL LEWIS
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF
THE SCHOOL OF ADVANCED AIR POWER STUDIES
FOR COMPLETION OF GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS
SCHOOL OF ADVANCED AIR POWER STUDIES
AIR UNIVERSITY
MAXWELL AIR FORCE BASE, ALABAMA
JUNE 1996
Disclaimer
The conclusions and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author.
They do no reflect the official position of the US Government, Department of Defense, the
United States Air Force, or Air University.
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Contents
Page
DISCLAIMER ................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................. viii
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
Statement of Research Questions ................................................................................1
Background and Significance of the Problem...............................................................2
Limitations of the Study..............................................................................................3
Definitions and Assumptions.......................................................................................4
Preview of the Argument ............................................................................................5
CAS: WWI THROUGH WWII ......................................................................................6
Introduction................................................................................................................6
WWI...........................................................................................................................7
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower: WWI....................................................7
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets: WWI............................................9
CAS Command and Control (C2) System: WWI.................................................. 10
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate: WWI.................................................11
The Interwar Years ................................................................................................... 13
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower: Interwar.............................................13
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets: Interwar...................................... 16
CAS Command and Control (C2) System: Interwar.............................................19
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate: Interwar ............................................ 20
WWII (Pre–combat, North Africa, Pacific, Sicily/Italy, and France)........................... 22
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ............................................................. 22
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets...................................................... 27
CAS Command and Control (C2) System.............................................................30
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate ............................................................ 33
Summary...................................................................................................................36
CAS: THE KOREAN WAR ......................................................................................... 45
Introduction..............................................................................................................45
Pre–Korea.................................................................................................................46
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ............................................................. 46
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Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets...................................................... 47
CAS Command and Control (C2) System.............................................................48
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate ............................................................ 49
Korea........................................................................................................................50
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ............................................................. 51
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets...................................................... 54
CAS Command and Control (C2) System.............................................................59
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate ............................................................ 68
Summary...................................................................................................................73
CAS: A GROUND COMMANDER’S PERSPECTIVE ............................................... 80
Introduction..............................................................................................................80
General Almond’s Thoughts and Influence ................................................................ 81
Relevant Background in the Employment of Firepower and Airpower................... 81
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ............................................................. 84
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets...................................................... 90
CAS Command and Control (C2) System.............................................................95
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate .......................................................... 102
Summary.................................................................................................................105
CONCLUSIONS.........................................................................................................109
Introduction............................................................................................................109
Discussion of Issues ................................................................................................ 110
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ........................................................... 110
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets.................................................... 112
CAS Command and Control (C2) System...........................................................113
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate .......................................................... 114
Principal Findings.................................................................................................... 115
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ........................................................... 115
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets.................................................... 116
CAS Command and Control (C2) System...........................................................117
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate .......................................................... 118
Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 118
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ........................................................... 118
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets.................................................... 119
CAS Command and Control (C2) System...........................................................120
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate .......................................................... 121
Impact on Current Issues......................................................................................... 121
Priorities in the Employment of Airpower ........................................................... 121
Ownership and Apportionment of CAS Assets.................................................... 122
CAS Command and Control (C2) System...........................................................123
Single– or Multi–Purpose Aircraft Debate .......................................................... 124
Summary.................................................................................................................124
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................... 126
Conclusion..............................................................................................................126
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APPENDIX A: CLOSE AIR SUPPORT STRIKE.......................................................129
APPENDIX B: CAS DEFINITIONS........................................................................... 130
APPENDIX C: GENERAL ALMOND, BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ............. 134
APPENDIX D: CLOSE AIR SUPPORT OF GROUND OPERATIONS ..................... 136
APPENDIX E: OPERATIONAL CONTROL ............................................................. 139
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................141
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................143
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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge those who helped me professionally, emotionally, and
spiritually with this study. First and foremost professionally, I would like to thank Dr
Dave Mets, my thesis advisor and protector, for his wisdom, insight, and patience. What I
learned from him regarding ground, naval, and airpower, and professional writing will be
invaluable in my future military endeavors. He has truly reached the pinnacle of military
professional excellence and I am fortunate to have worked with him. I am also deeply
indebted to Dr Hal Winton, my thesis reader. His analytical genius not only helped me
repair any flaws in my logic, but also gain better insight into my subject. Their comments
were always positive and constructive, giving me the confidence necessary to complete
this work. May they never retire; as when they do, SAAS and the US military will lose
two historical and analytical gems in our treasure chest of national defense. I would also
like to thank the staff at the US Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks,
Pennsylvania, for their assistance in researching General Almond’s personal papers.
Additionally, I would like to thank all of the SAAS faculty and staff for their assistance in
areas ranging from educational and professional guidance to administration. I am
particularly grateful to the SAAS Dean, Colonel Phil Meilinger, one of the few active–
duty airpower visionaries, who broadened my airpower horizons and (perhaps most
significantly) helped arrange my follow–on assignment.
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Most importantly, I would like to recognize my wife, Diane, for all the emotional
support she provides me every day. She is always there to give me love and sympathy
when I need them and a good swift kick when I lose sight of reality. Like most military
spouses, she has put her professional career as a commercial artist second to mine and
never once complained about it. I would also like to thank my daughter, Hayley; she has
done an outstanding job during a very tough year. I am very proud of both my wife and
daughter and cannot thank them enough for all the sacrifices they have made for me
during this school year. Additionally, I would like to thank my father, “Feezer,” a crusty
old retired Navy chief, for his encouragement and sense of humor. Also, I would like to
acknowledge my mother, Margaret, who passed away in May 1995. As a kid, whenever
I’d get a little too high on myself she would say to me, “I love me, who do you love?”
Good advice for all of us who start believing everything in our OPRs.
Lastly, I would like to thank my God for all the blessings and good fortune I have
received. I have been given far more than I deserve and hope I can help make a positive
contribution to the Air Force, my country, and the world.
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Abstract
This study analyzes the historical debate between the Army and Air Force over the
issue of close air support (CAS). Specifically, this thesis examines four CAS sub–issues
from World War I through the Korean War: priorities in the employment of airpower, the
ownership and apportionment of CAS assets, the most effective CAS command and
control (C2) system, and the debate over whether to procure a single– or multi–purpose
CAS aircraft. A fundamental explanation given for Army and Air Force differences in
philosophy on CAS is the historical difference in military objectives (decisive points). This
difference has shaped air force, force structure and air asset employment, and significantly
contributed to the Army–Air Force CAS debate.
The case study portion of this paper analyzes the CAS philosophy of Lieutenant
General Edward Mallory Almond, US Army. The author reasoned that General Almond’s
diverse background in Army, Navy, and Air Force theory and employment would make
him a logical candidate for study. The main focus of this paper is on CAS employment
and issues during the Korean War. General Almond served in World War I and World
War II, and commanded the X Corps during the Korean War. His personal papers stored
at the Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, offer unique insights into
a ground commander’s views on CAS.
While his opinions are much more complex than this short abstract can do justice to,
Almond’s CAS thoughts evolved to the following: 1) air priorities should be – first, air
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superiority; second, CAS; and then interdiction and strategic attack, 2) the Army should
maintain operational control of sufficient (meaning ‘lots of’) CAS air assets and practice
decentralized control (down to the division or corps level), 3) the services should build
and adequately staff joint, well–integrated CAS C2 systems to support the CAS mission,
and 4) the Air Force should build, with Army inputs, a single–purpose CAS aircraft.
While readers may or may not agree with all of Almond’s ideas, they will find good points
of discussion. Almond’s thoughts on CAS C2 systems are of particular note and
importance to today’s military. The author completes his study by reiterating the principal
issues, his relevant findings and conclusions, and the implications of his analysis on current
issues.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Statement of Research Questions
The purpose of this study is to examine the roots and historical friction between the
Air Force and Army over the issue of the effective employment of airpower for close air
support (CAS) of ground forces. While this thesis looks at the CAS issue from WWI
through the Korean War, it emphasizes the period during the Korean Conflict. This
period significantly shaped the recurring Air Force/Army CAS controversy. While
studying this period, I will attempt to determine how Lieutenant General Edward (“Ned”)
Mallory Almond, United States Army, directly affected or indirectly influenced the Air
Force/Army CAS debate. This study discusses the evolution of General Almond’s views
on CAS before WWII up through his retirement in December, 1952. However, the bulk
of the focus on Almond targets his thoughts and actions during the Korean War. I will
also examine whether General Almond’s views changed over time and any discrepancies
between his stated views on the best use of CAS and his actual employment of air assets
for CAS. Noteworthy are his CAS policy and actual CAS employment while performing
as X Corps Commander during the Korean Conflict.
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Description:THE SCHOOL OF ADVANCED AIR POWER STUDIES. FOR COMPLETION OF
. CAS Command and Control (C2) System: WWI.. 10.
