Low Temperature Electronics: Physics, Devices, Circuits, and Applications

985 Pages·2000·44.49 MB·English

by  Edmundo A. Gutierrez-D

Low Temperature Electronics:
Physics, Devices, Circuits,
and Applications
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Low Temperature Electronics:
Physics, Devices, Circuits,
and Applications
Edmundo A. Gutiérrez-D.
Motorola de Mexico, S.A.
Puebla, México
M. Jamal Deen
McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
C. Claeys
Interuniversity MicroElectronics Center, IMEC,
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KU Leuven), Belgium
.9P
ACADEMIC PRESS
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Cover credit: © 1996 IEEE. "Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA Lewis Re-
search Center Space Qualified Hybrid High Temperature Superconducting/
Semiconducting 7.4GHz Low Noise Downconverter for NRL HISSE-II
Program" by H. Javadi, J. Bowen, D. Roscoe, R. Romanofsky, C. Chorey, and
K. Bhasin, IEEE Trans. MIT, Vol. 44, No. 7, pp. 1279-1288, 1996. Photo
provided by R. Romanofsky, NASA Glenn Research Center.
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CONTENTS
Foreword ix
General Overview xi
1. Physics of Silicon at Cryogenic Temperatures 1
Edmundo A. Gutiérrez-D.
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Energy Distribution and Charge Carriers 2
1.3. Semiconductor Surface-Related Phenomena 41
1.4. Charge Ionization 53
1.5. Thermal Properties and Electrothermal Effects 71
1.6. Optical Properties 85
1.7. Conclusions 94
References 96
2. Silicon Devices and Circuits 105
E. A Gutiérrez-D., C. Claeys, and E. Simoen
2.1. Introduction 105
2.2. The Bulk MOS Transistor 106
2.3. The Silicon-on-Insulator MOS Transistor 157
2.4. The Bipolar Transistor 185
2.5. Radiation Detectors 194
2.6. Circuits 211
2.7. Conclusions 239
References
240
3. Reliability Aspects of Cryogenic Silicon Technologies 259
C. Claeys and E. Simoen
3.1. Introduction 259
3.2. High Electrical Field Transport Phenomena in Si at
Cryogenic Temperatures
260
v
vi CONTENTS
3.3. Avalanche and Breakdown Effects in Si Resistor s
and Bipolar Devices at Low Temperature 274
3.4. Avalanche and Breakdown Phenomena in Cryogenic
MOSFETs
290
3.5. Hot Carrier Degradation and Reliability at Low
Temperatures
331
3.6. Conclusions 358
References
359
4. Radiation Effects and Low-Frequency Noise in Silicon
Technologies 385
C. Claeys and E. Simoen
4.1. Introduction 385
4.2. Radiation Effects at Low Temperature 387
4.3. Low-Frequency Noise at Cryogenic Temperatures 430
4.4. Conclusions 485
References
488
5. Heterostructure and Compound Semiconductor Devices 511
F. Javier De la Hidalga-W., M. Jamal Deen, and Yegao Xiao
5.1. Introduction 511
5.2. GaAs Field-Effect Transistors 521
5.3. High Electron Mobility Transistors 541
5.4. Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 558
5.5. Resonant Tunneling Diodes 578
5.6. Circuits and Applications 617
Acknowledgments 626
References 626
6. Compound Heterostructure Semiconductor Lasers
and Photodetectors 647
Yegao Xiao, M. Jamal Deen, and F. Javier De la Hidalga-W.
6.1. Introduction 647
6.2. Compound Semiconductor Lasers 649
6.3. InP / InGaAs Avalanche Photodiodes 736
CONTENTS vii
6.4. Quantum Well Infrared Photodetectors 758
6.5. PIN and Other Photodetectors and Cryogenic
Application Systems 801
Acknowledgments 811
References 811
7. High-Temperature Superconductor/Semiconductor
Hybrid Microwave Devices and Circuits 841
Robert R. Romanofsky and Felix A. Miranda
7.1. Introduction 841
7.2. High-Temperature Superconducting Films:
Fabrication and Characterization 843
7.3. Filters 865
7.4. Antennas 866
7.5. Oscillators 871
7.6. Hybrid Superconductor /Semiconductor Receiver
Front Ends 878
7.7. Conclusions 888
References 889
8. Cryocooling and Thermal Management 901
Svetlana V. Koshevaya and E. A. Gutiérrez-D.
8.1. Introduction 901
8.2. Obtainment of Cryogenic Liquids 902
8.3. Fundamentals of Cryogenic Processes 903
8.4. Basic Cooling Methods 907
8.5. Thermoelectronic Cooling 913
8.6. Generation of Ultralow Cryogenic Temperatures 915
8.7. Cryostats 920
8.8. Thermal Management 925
8.9. Conclusions 931
References 934
9. Applications, Trends, and Perspectives 935
Edmundo A. Gutiérrez-D., M. Jamal Deen, and Cor Claeys
Index 953
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Foreword
Low-temperature electronics has already been studied for more than five
decades. Originally the main interest was in fundamental material
properties at cryogenic temperatures. Although the real benefits of
operating semiconductor devices were clearly demonstrated in the
1970s, a peak in activity occurred a decade later when the cryocomputer
seemed to be achievable and the possible hybridization of cryogenic
electronics with high-temperature superconductors was no longer a
dream but a real possibility. After a slowing-down period, in the mid
1990s, cryogenic electronics was again placed in the forefront. Not only
for space applications, but now, commercial fields are also showing kee n
interest in this exciting area.
To date, many conference proceedings are available; however, the
only book in the field is a compilation of published journal articles ,
edited by R. Kirschman in 1986. The strong potential of cryoelectronics
has increased the scientific research and new scientists and engineers are
entering the field. This book, therefore, aims to give broad, in-depth
coverage of the different aspects of low-temperature electronics, from
device physics and material research, to device and circuit performance.
A large variety of semiconductor materials and devices are addressed,
while special attention is given to cryocoolers.
In general, when discussing low-temperature operation, three main
regions can be differentiated, i.e. the liquid nitrogen (77K) range, the
liquid helium (4.2K) range, and finally the deep cryogenic temperatures
going down to the mK range. Where the first region may lead to more
or less commercial applications, the second one is mainly used for cold
electronics associated with space mission such as e.g. ISOPHOT and
FIRST (Far InfraRed Space Telescope). Extreme low-temperatures are the
world of astrophysical applications, such as bolometers. The lower the
operating temperature the more the activities are shifting from potentia l
industrial applications to research-oriented fields. All three temperature
regions will be discussed in the present book, which contains a general
introduction nine chapters.
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