LK DPHIL Thesis

240 Pages·2011·7.58 MB·English

The interaction between the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana africana) and the African honey
bee (Apis mellifera scutellata) and its potential
application as an elephant deterrent

A thesis submitted to the University of Oxford for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology

Lucy E. King
Balliol College

2010

Declaration:

This thesis was supported by a joint ESRC/NERC studentship grant. The proposed
blend of the two research fields has been adhered to, creating an interdisciplinary thesis
with a 65% emphasis on Natural Science and a 35% emphasis on Social Science.

I confirm that this thesis is all my own work, unless otherwise stated, and with the
exception of three data analyses in Chapter 3. These analyses, and assistance with the
data collection, were conducted by my colleague Dr Joseph Soltis from the Bioacoustic
Laboratory at Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Education and Science Department, Florida.

Specifically, the data analyses Dr Soltis conducted were:

Section 3.2.1. Analysis of 120 infant (0-3 year old) zoo elephant calf vocalisations
from Disney’s acoustic database to help us identify 0-2 year old
vocalisations from our wild Samburu acoustic data set and remove them
from the sample.

Section 3.2.2. Measuring and statistical analysis of the fundamental frequency, mean
frequency and frequency range of vocalisations recorded from our wild
Samburu elephant database.

Section 3.2.3. Shifting of the second formant in the bee rumble to represent those more
typical of the white noise rumble to enable us to carry out the playback
experiments as described in the remainder of Chapter 3. This includes
the production of Figure 3.2.

This collaborative research described in detail in Chapter 3 enabled us to publish a joint
authorship paper King et al., (2010) in the journal PLoS One.

The text, excluding figure legends, tables, references and Appendix, does not exceed
45,000 words.

Signed

Date

i

ABSTRACT

The conceptual origin of this DPhil thesis was based on one foundation
publication by Vollrath and Douglas-Hamilton (2002a) “African bees to control African
elephants”. The authors made a unique discovery that African elephants will avoid
feeding on acacia trees that host beehives, either empty or occupied by African honey
bees. The concept that elephants might hold a long term memory about bees that could
be so negative as to evolve avoidance behaviour towards an otherwise favourite food
source, was deeply intriguing and warranted further study.
Two key research questions are asked in this thesis and are reflected in the title
(i) what happens when elephants and honey bees interact and (ii) how can we adapt this
behaviour into a potential deterrent system for crop-raiding elephants. Hence, this is
really a thesis of two halves blending both disciplines of natural and social sciences.
The first three data chapters explore in detail the behavioural response of elephant
families to digital playbacks of bee sounds. This technique has been used successfully
by other established elephant research teams including acoustic studies on African
savannah elephants conducted by scientists with the Amboseli Trust for Elephants and
Cornell University studying African forest elephants. Here, I work with an unfenced
savannah elephant population studied by Save the Elephants in Samburu and Buffalo
Springs National Reserves, northern Kenya. I show that not only do elephants run from
the sound of bees but that they emit a unique low frequency alarm call when doing so,
which in turn alarms (or warns) others in the area to retreat. Although these multi-
layered behavioural discoveries were groundbreaking, I go on to reveal that bee sounds
alone will not be enough to deter elephants for long as they do start to habituate to the
playback sounds when no negative conditioning from live bees occurs.
Turning to the application of this knowledge, I spend three chapters describing
in detail the development and evolution of a unique beehive fence designed specifically
for use by poor rural farmers who suffer from frequent crop depredations and damage
by elephants. I rely on several rapid rural appraisal techniques to evaluate the impact of
the beehive fence on efficiency and effectiveness as well as the perception of the
farmers and the potential income and livelihood prospects. The adoption success of the
beehive fence system in three rural communities leads to a discussion about the wider
application of beehive fences on both a regional and global scale. I end with a list of
recommendations for the conditions within which I predict the beehive fences will be
effective.

Foundation Publication
Vollrath, F. and Douglas-Hamilton, I. (2002a) African bees to control African elephants.
Naturwissenshaften 89: 508-511.
iii
The Winds II family crossing the Ewaso Ng’iro River, Samburu National Reserve
First Year of DPhil Research, 7th May 2007
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Government of Kenya, Laikipia, Samburu and Isiolo County
Councils for permission to conduct this research in Kenya, and Kenya Wildlife Service
for supporting what started out as an investigative concept. Special thanks to Moses
Litoroh and Patrick Omondi for their encouragement and friendship both in Kenya and
during tense CITES conferences around the world.
I have been extremely privileged during my research to ‘stand on the shoulders’
of some eminent scientists. Professor Fritz Vollrath and Dr Iain Douglas-Hamilton OBE,
whose 2002 research paper describing the deterrent effect of bees on acacia trees
triggered off excited discussions and helped me form the research questions for this
thesis. Professor Vollrath has guided me through the Oxford DPhil process and yet
allowed me the freedom to explore my own ideas and make my own mistakes. Thank
you for providing me with the framework for such a successful research project and for
giving me the best five years of my life. Without Dr Iain Douglas-Hamilton I may never
have had any elephants to study. He has spent his entire life working tirelessly to secure
a future for elephants and it has been my pleasure and honour to work within his vision
and to absorb some of his passion for elephants. I can’t thank him, and his phenomenal
wife and daughters Oria, Saba and Dudu Douglas-Hamilton, enough for taking me
under their wings and into the heart of Save the Elephants. Thank you for introducing
me to the wonderful elephants and people of Samburu, I hope this research will help to
save a few more elephants in the future. Also within Oxford, I am very grateful to my
joint supervisor, Dr Anna Lawrence, for her input and advice on the social science
aspects of this thesis and for introducing me to a new field of fascinating research
theory.
At Save the Elephants, I must thank Njoki Kibanya and Wainaina Kimani for
adeptly managing our behind-the-scene logistics with endless patience. Festus Ihwagi
and Barnard Lewasopir have helped me repeatedly with ArcGIS advice and mapping
skills. In Samburu, I am so grateful for the friendship and camp companionship of
David Daballen, Chris Leadismo, Gilbert Sabinga, Daniel Lentipo, Jerenimo Lepirei
and Shivani Bhalla who all, at one time or another, came to my assistance in the field.
Lenbera, Andrew, Michael and Lekomat helped to keep me fed, safe and mostly snake-
free. Special thanks to my two field assistants Lucas Lepuiyapui and Wilson
Lelukumani with whom I have shared many adventures and challenges, and who both
saved me from passing out after being stung badly by a swarm of angry bees. I can now
see why elephants run away. During my research I have had the utmost privilege to
meet and work with some wonderful farmers and their families. There are too many to
list here but special thanks must go to Ephrahim Miner, Felix Mathenge, Joseph
Wahome, Mercyfield Wambaruko and the whole Mwiriri Beekeepers Group in Ex-
Erok; Peter Ekeri, Charles Lobenyo, Chinja, Angelina Lokunyugo and Mzee John from
Chumviyere and Etorro, and Godwin Kilele and Margaret Kiriro from Sagalla. Onesmas
Kahindi deserves special thanks for introducing me to the fascinating Turkana
communities of Chumviyere and Etorro, where I now feel so at home.
Particular thanks must go to Dr Joseph Soltis and Dr Anne Savage at Disney’s
Bioacoustics Lab in Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Florida, who collaborated fully with
me for the bee alarm rumble work (Chapter 3). Without their skills, experience and
generosity with time and equipment this important section of my thesis would not have
been completed. Apologies for the elephant-flattened microphone.
v
I am grateful for my core funding from an ESRC/NERC joint studentship grant,
which enabled me to conduct my research at the Animal Behaviour Research Group in
the Department of Zoology at Oxford. Thanks to Professor Marian Stamp Dawkins for
her encouragement and to Lynne Bradley, Heather Green and Lorraine Hogg for
administration support while I was in Kenya. Additional, and vital, funding was
provided by Save the Elephants, Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund, Rufford Small
Grants Foundation, VSNi, Appropriate Development Consultancy Ltd, Fund for
Women Graduates, The Kileva Foundation through Cliff and Jane Evans, The Wingate
Foundation and Balliol College.
My time in Kenya and Oxford was enhanced by the assistance, friendship,
generosity and/or inspiration of so many people but the following people deserve
particular thanks: Susannah Rouse, Dr Max Graham, Dr Stephen Chege, Jake Wall, Dr
George Wittemyer, Dr Henrik Rasmussen, Alice Leslie, Dr Juliet King, Ian Craig,
Richard Moller, Dr Cynthia Moss, Dr Joyce Poole, Dr Suresh Raina, Dr Ian Gordon,
Dr Kate Evans, Dr Chris Holland, Dr Seb Shimeld, Pat Awori and the whole BBC crew
for such a fascinating time during the filming of The Secret Life of Elephants TV series.
My two examiners, Dr Karen McComb and Dr Mark Stanley Price contributed editing
and discussion points to the final thesis and their constructive comments were highly
appreciated.
Special thanks to Pierre Burton for his support and encouragement and whose
love of Kenya is contagious. My sister Sarah has been a huge support, even though she
was busy saving mothers and babies in Sudan. I am thankful to have been brought up in
Lesotho and by inspiring parents who took us camping in almost every game reserve in
southern Africa. This thesis would not have happened without such a unique wildlife-
orientated upbringing and I thank you both for the world of opportunities you gave me.
This thesis is dedicated to the matriarch of our family, my grandmother Ruth Smith,
who loved elephants.
Contents Page
Declaration i
Abstract iii
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vii

Chapter 1: Introduction – The point of this research in an historical context 1

1.1. Interactions between Elephants and Mankind – Historical Overview
1.2. Modern Day Conflicts and Exploitation
1.3. Elephant Status in Kenya and the Emergence of Human-Elephant Conflict
1.4. Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation Methods – Brief Overview
1.5. Introducing the Concept that Elephants might be Scared of Bees
1.5.1. Anecdotes
1.5.2. Characteristics of Apis meliffera scutellata, The African Honey Bee
1.6. Thesis Research Questions
1.7. Study Areas in Kenya
1.7.1. Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves
1.7.2. Ngare Mara Community
1.7.3. Pilot Study Sites: Ex-Erok and Sagalla
1.8. Thesis Structure

Chapter 2: Elephant reactions to honey bees: Playback sound experiments
with known elephant families in Samburu and Buffalo Springs 21
National Reserves, Kenya

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Method
2.2.1. Recording Sounds from a Wild Beehive
2.2.2. Control Sound of Natural White Noise
2.2.3. Playbacks to Elephants
2.2.4. Behavioural Analysis: Definitions and Methods
2.2.5. Matched Families
2.2.6. Statistical Analysis
2.3. Results
2.3.1. Latency of Response and Distance Moved
2.3.2. Mode of Retreat
2.3.3. Behavioural Responses to Stimuli
2.3.4. Sub-sample Analysis of 13 Matched Families
2.4. Discussion
vii
Chapter 3: Bee Threat Elicits Alarm Call in African Elephants. 45

3.1. Introduction
3.2. Method
3.2.1. Honey Bee Stimuli Playbacks
3.2.2. Acoustic Measurement of Rumble Response
3.2.3. Rumble Playbacks
3.2.4. Statistical Analyses
3.3. Results
3.3.1. Honey Bee Playbacks
3.3.2. Acoustic Properties of Rumble Response
3.3.3. Rumble Playbacks
3.4. Discussion

Chapter 4: Could Bee Sounds Alone be an Effective Elephant Deterrent?
Habituation Effects on Elephant Families Repeatedly Played Bee 63
Sounds.

4.1. Introduction
4.2. Method
4.3. Results
4.3.1. Data Summary
4.3.2. Latency of Response and Distance Moved for all Trials
4.3.3. Behavioural Responses for all Trials

4.3.4. Comparing Latency of Response and Distance Moved for families
with Long and Short gaps between the First Two Playback Trials

4.3.5. Comparing Behavioural Responses for families with Long and
Short gaps between the First Two Playback Trials

4.3.6. Comparing Mode of Retreat for families with Long and Short gaps
between the First Two Playback Trials
4.3.7. A Closer Look at Individual Elephant Families
4.4. Discussion

Mid Script Field Note: Preliminary Study and Evolution of Research Direction 83