Table Of ContentUniversity of Kentucky
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Theses and Dissertations--Sociology Sociology
2015
LIVING WITHOUT GOD: FEMALE ATHEISTS AND STIGMA
MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES
Jamie L. Pond
University of Kentucky,
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The document mentioned above has been reviewed and accepted by the student’s advisor, on
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Jamie L. Pond, Student
Dr. Shaunna Scott, Major Professor
Dr. Ana Liberato, Director of Graduate Studies
LIVING WITHOUT GOD: FEMALE ATHEISTS AND STIGMA MANAGEMENT IN
THE SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES
__________________________________________
DISSERTATION
__________________________________________
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
College of Arts and Sciences
at the University of Kentucky
By
Jamie Pond
Lexington, Kentucky
Director: Dr. Shaunna Scott, Professor of Sociology
Lexington, Kentucky
Copyright © Jamie Pond 2015
ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION
LIVING WITHOUT GOD: FEMALE ATHEISTS AND STIGMA MANAGEMENT IN
THE SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES
This study focuses upon the experiences and perceptions of women Atheists in the
Southern U.S., a region which is highly religious and, therefore, has comparatively low
numbers of Atheists. Taking a Symbolic Interactionist approach, I examine how these
Southern Atheists understood what it means to be an “Atheist,” how they became Atheist,
their strategies to manage their stigmatized identity as Atheists, and finally the role
gender has in managing this stigma. I utilize a Feminist methodology to investigate and
foreground women’s experiences. I conducted participant observation at 23 Atheist and
Humanist meetings in two southern cities in two different states; I also interviewed 51
Atheists, 40 female and 11 male.
I found a variety of definitions for Atheism, though all participants agreed that they do
not believe in god. This identity is also informed by political ideologies and philosophies
that cultivate pro-social behavior. Participants also discussed what they perceived to be
the best things about what it means to be an Atheist.
I also examined the stages by which Atheists come to this identification especially as this
relates to the importance of place and their experiences in educational, religious and
family institutions and how these affected their decisions to self-identify as Atheist.
Additionally, I investigated how Atheists undergo stigma management (and negative
interactions) by selectively concealing their identity, which they based on what they
believed others assumed about Atheists. Many strategies were used to assuage feelings of
being uncomfortable. As a stigmatized group, they discuss the importance of community
and social support. In addition, Atheists saw several parallels between their experiences
and the LGBT community such as similar language and face prejudice and
discrimination, even though they said that the Atheists can more easily “pass.”
Atheist women manage their stigma by utilizing various tactics to avoid hurting the
feelings of others. Female Atheists walk a fine line between being masculine and
assertive when they identify as masculine and caring about the feelings of others.
Participants also discussed the role gender plays in self-identifying as Atheist. Lastly,
they explained that it is harder to be woman and an Atheist.
KEYWORDS: Atheism, Gender, Religion, Stigma, Stigma Management
Jamie Pond___________________
October 12, 2015_______________
LIVING WITHOUT GOD: FEMALE ATHEISTS AND STIGMA MANAGEMENT IN
THE SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES
By
Jamie Pond
___Shaunna Scott, Ph. D.________
Director of Dissertation
___Ana Liberato, Ph. D. _________
Director of Graduate Studies
_______October 12, 2015________
I would like to dedicate this dissertation to all of those who have been my support
system.
First and foremost, my husband has been the most understanding and supportive person.
He has listened to me gripe about transcription, he has watched our daughter while I
attended meetings and conducted interviews, and he has given me space to work in his
office.
Secondly, I would like to dedicate this to my lovely daughter. May you grow up to be
stronger than me, twice as bold, and as someone who questions the world around you. As
I tell you every day, you are my favorite person and I love you more than you will ever
know.
Next, I would like to thank my other family members for your encouragement throughout
the years. You always instilled in me to get an education and challenge myself and I am
very grateful for you.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge and thank my ever-understanding and tremendously
knowledgeable committee led by my chair Dr. Shaunna Scott. You have been so
supportive and I could not have asked for a better advisor. Thank you Dr. Edward Morris
for being my cheerleader. Ever since our independent study, you have pushed me to be
more confident in my work and ideas and I am very appreciative for all your support.
Thank you Dr. Ana Liberato and Dr. Beth Goldstein for being willing to discuss and
brainstorm as well as challenge me.
I would like to thank all of my participants. Your stories, experiences, and your take on
the world around you are the backbone of this dissertation and without your involvement
and willingness to sit down with me, it would not exist and for that I am very grateful. In
addition, your stories and your worldview give me hope that tomorrow will be better than
today.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………….i
Approval Page…………………………………………………………………………….ii
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………....iii
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………....iv
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..vi
Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………...………………1
Being Atheist in America…………………………………...….………………….1
Research Questions………………………………………………………………..8
What is an Atheist? ……………………………………………………………….9
Chapter Two: Theoretical Approach and Methodology…………………………………12
Theoretical Approach ……………………………………………………………12
Importance of Language and Labels……………………………………..13
Goffman and Self-Presentation ………………………………………….15
Identity……………………………………………………………...........17
Stigma……………………………………………………………………18
Community………………………………………………………………20
Stigmatization Management …………………………………………….21
Passing……………………………………………………………...........21
Atheism and Gender……………………………………………………..24
Research Design………………………………………………………………….31
Feminist Methodology…………………………………………………...31
Research Methods………………………………………………………..35
Context and Sampling Strategy………………………………………….38
Demographics of my Sample ………………………………………........42
Chapter Three: Defining Atheism………………………………………………………..46
Morality…………………………………………………………………………..53
What Informs the Atheist Identity? ……………………………………………...60
Other Ideologies? ………………………………………………………………..63
Importance of Science……………………………………………………………68
Best Things About Being Atheist ……………………………………………….69
Conclusion and Significance ……………………………………………………71
Chapter Four: Becoming Atheist………………………………………………………...72
Previous Research………………………………………………………………..73
Stage One: Starting Point ………………………………………………………..77
Stage Two: Asking Questions …………………………………………………...89
Stage Three: Rejecting Theism ………………………………………………….93
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Overview of the Process of Becoming Atheist…………………………………..97
Importance of Place……………………………………………………………...98
Importance of Context…………………………………………………………...99
Chapter Five: The Stigmatization of Atheists…………………………………………..102
Stigma…………………………………………………………………………..103
Stigma Management……………………………………………………………107
Assumptions about Atheists…………………………………………………….109
The Importance of Place………………………………………………………..112
Feeling Uncomfortable…………………………………………………………118
Negative Experiences…………………………………………………………..122
Importance of Community……………………………………………………..133
Being a Minority and Finding Community…………………………………….138
Chapter Six: The Role of Gender and Stigmatization………………………………….146
Role of Gender………………………………………………………………….147
Stigma Management Strategies and Gender …………………………………...153
Utilizing Tact to Navigate Hurt Feelings……………………………………….155
Gender and Self-Identifying as Atheist…………………………………………162
Gender and Being Religious……………………………………………………169
The Role of Children and Being Religious……………………………………..176
Gender and Community………………………………………………………...182
Female Role Models……………………………………………………………185
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...186
Chapter Seven: Conclusion and Limitations……………………………………………187
Limitations and Future Research……………………………………………….191
A Few Final Thoughts………………………………………………………….195
References………………………………………………………………………………198
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………...204
Appendix A: My Journey……………………………………………………….204
Appendix B: Questionnaire for female participants……………………………216
Appendix C: Questionnaire for male participants……………………………...220
Vita……………………………………………………………………………………..224
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