Living with Adversity and Vulnerability - Epsilon Open Archive - SLU

223 Pages·2010·0.77 MB·English

Living with Adversity and Vulnerability
Adaptive Strategies and the Role of Trees in
Konso, Southern Ethiopia

Menfese Tadesse
Faculty of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences
Department of Urban and Rural Development
Uppsala
Doctoral Thesis
Swedish University ofAgricultural Sciences

Uppsala 2010
Acta Universitatis agriculturae Sueciae
2010:15
Cover: Photo from the study site showing the farming landscape and
communities working in the Productive Safety-Net Program
Photo: Menfese Tadesse
ISSN 1652-6880
ISBN 978-91-576-7492-0
© 2010 Menfese Tadesse, Uppsala
Print: SLU Service/Repro, Uppsala 2010
Living with Adversity and Vulnerability: Adaptive Strategies
and the Role of Trees in Konso, Southern Ethiopia
Abstract
The Konso people of Southern Ethiopia have been known for their traditional land
management and conservation practices and mixed farming systems in which trees
have played a central role. These practices helped them to sustain livelihoods over
long period to survive in a less favored area. However, the Konso people have been
suffering from drought and food shortage in the recent past. Despite the long
standing traditional land management practices (which are still in use), we do not
have sufficient information why the livelihood of Konso people has become
increasingly vulnerable. This thesis uses the sustainable livelihood framework to
identify potential contributors to vulnerability and also highlights the role of agency
and structure perspectives in rural development. The study employed key informant
interviews, focus group discussions, a formal survey and a participatory workshop.

The study identified the major factors contributing to vulnerability to be food
insecurity from frequent drought primarily as a result of changes in a rainfall
pattern, high population pressure leading to reduction in farm size and declining soil
fertility. The study also revealed that the options for non-farm and off-farm
employment activities are temporary in nature, limited and low paying. Productive
Safety-Net Program (PSNP) has enabled people to have better access to food,
however, building assets and saving at household level was limited. Conservation
and restoration of the natural resources and the building of other public assets under
PSNP have showed mixed outcomes. The on-going self-employment credit
program is a good start but not adequately in place. The study identified potentials
and constraints to tree growing on farm lands as a way to cover immediate
subsistence needs, as well as to generate income.

The study concludes that policies that respond appropriately to the Konso-specific
context, provide diverse livelihood options, and include the primary social actors
and effective coordination and mobilization of local institutions in the decision
making process as requisites to enhance the development intervention efforts being
implemented to reduce vulnerability.

Keywords: vulnerability, livelihoods, coping strategy, food insecurity, PSNP, farm
trees, Konso, Ethiopia.
Author’s address: Menfese Tadesse, SLU, Department of Urban and Rural
Development, P.O. Box 7012, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
E-mail: [email protected]
Dedication
I dedicate this thesis to my late father Tadesse Eirgete
Contents
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction 13
1.1 Background 13
1.2 The problem statement 17
Increasing frequency of drought 17
Socio-economic factors and weakened adaptive strategies 18
Constrained income diversification as coping strategy 18
Development interventions: Status quo or improvement? 18
1.3 Objectives and research questions 20
1.3.1 Objectives of the study 20
1.3.2 Research questions 21
1.4 The thesis outline 22
2 Theoretical considerations 25
2.1 The sustainable development concept, sustainable livelihoods approach
and agency - structure 25
2.1.1 Overview of development approaches 25
2.2 Agricultural development and the growing concern of sustainable
development 27
2.3 The Sustainable livelihoods approach-scope and limitations 30
2.4 Brief review of livelihoods study in Africa 33
2.5 Linking the sustainable livelihood framework and agency and structure
relation in livelihoods analysis 37
2.5.1 The concept of agency and structure relation 37
2.5.2 Understanding vulnerability using the sustainable livelihood
framework and the agency and structure concept 38
2.5.3 Household asset portfolios considered in the study 40
The natural resource capital 42
The human capital 42
A focus on household food security 43
Adaptation and coping strategies 45
Farm tree resources and tree growing 46
Power relations, policy and institutional environment 47
Conceptual framework of vulnerability and capacity to adapt 48
3 Methods 51
3.1 Description of the study area 51
3.1.1 Location 51
3.1.2 Settlement history 54
3.1.3 Land of intensive agriculture and terracing 54
3.2 Data collection 56
3.2.1 Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative research methods 56
3.3 Methods of data collection 59
3.3.1 Informal methods 59
3.3.2 Formal survey 61
3.3.3 The workshop 61
4 Socio-economic profile of the community and vulnerability to
drought 63
4.1 Age structure and sex composition 63
4.2 Education level 65
4.3 Assets 66
4.3.1 Land tenure and farm size 66
4.3.1.1 Land tenure 66
4.3.1.2 Land holding 68
4.3.2 Livestock ownership 75
4.3.3 Household labour profile and use in agriculture activities 80
4.4 Vulnerability context and trend 82
4.4.1 Brief history of drought in Ethiopia 82
4.5 The case of Konso 84
4.6 The trend overtime 85
4.7 Rainfall characteristics in Konso 87
5 Livelihood options and adaptive strategies at community and
household levels to changing socio-economic and climatic
conditions 93
5.1 Strategies at community and household level 93
5.2 Intensifying land management practices 94
5.3 Diversifying crop mix and shift to drought tolerant crops and varieties 96
5.4 The growing importance of non-agricultural activities 102
5.4.1 Non-farm activities 102
5.4.2 Seasonal migration 108
5.4.3 Permanent migration and resettlement 112
5.5 Other strategies 114
5.5.1 Rationing 114
5.5.2 Borrowing 115
5.5.3 Soliciting food aid 115
5.5.4 Shift to wild foods 116
5.6 The changing roles of trees and the need for enhancing their
contributions 117
5.6.1 Farm tree resources and species preference 120
5.6.2 Strategies and objectives of tree growing 125
5.6.3 Challenges and opportunities for tree farming 129
5.6.4 How to enhance the role of trees for poverty alleviation and
conservation? 132
5.6.5 Technological and institutional measures to promote
tree farming 134
6 External interventions and their impacts 137
6.1 Interventions and impacts 137
6.1.1 Impacts of PSNP and access to credits in diversifying and
improving livelihoods 139
6.1.2 Impacts on tree growing and asset building 146
6.2 Perceptions of local actors on food aid 150
6.2.1 The experts' view 150
6.2.2 Views of key informants 152
6.2.3 Farmers' view 153
6.3 Implication for development planning and policy 157
7 Status and importance of local institutions 161
7.1 Local institutions and their functions 161
7.2 Role of informal institutions in NRM 162
7.3 The role of state and other actors 165
8 Living with adversity and vulnerability: the challenge of adaptive
and coping strategies 171
8.1 Explaining causes of vulnerability and chronic food insecurity 171
8.2 Traditional coping and adaptive strategies 173
8.3 Impact of development interventions in reducing vulnerability 177
8.4 The role of trees as adaptive strategies 181
8.5 Enhancing the capacities and mobilizing informal institutions 183
8.6 Relating to the theoretical approach 185
8.6.1 The Sustainable Livelihood Approach 185
8.6.2 The agency and structure lens applied 186
8.7 Governance and policy implications 190
8.8 Final remarks 193
9 Conclusions 195
References 205
Annexes 215
Annex 1 .The research main activities and method used to generate data
Annex 2. Flow chart for the research procedure
Annex 3. Number of persons permanently living in a household
Annex 4. Population distribution by age and sex
Annex 5. Educational background of Respondents
Annex 6. Educational level of household members
Annex 7. Trees and shrub species used as a drought source of food (local
names)
Abbreviations
ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization
CADU Chillalo Agricultural Development Unit
CSA Central Statistics Agency
DARE Deagrarianization and Rural Employment
DFID Department for International Development
EEA Ethiopian Economic Association
FFW Food For Work
FAO Food and Agricultural Origination
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FSR Farming Systems Research
GDP Gross Domestic Product
IFAD International Foundation for Agricultural Development
ITK Indigenous Technical Knowledge
Kanta Village
PA/Kebele Peasant Association
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MEDaC Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation
NGO Non Governmental Organization
ODI Overseas development Institute
PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained Development to End Poverty
PLA Participatory Learning and Action
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PSNP Productive Safety Net Program
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
SNNPR Sothern Nation, Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional Government Sub-
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
SLA Sustainable Livelihoods Approach
SLF Sustainable Livelihoods Framework
UNESCO United nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
Acknowledgements
There are many people whom I would like to thank for their contribution
in completing the research. First of all I would like to express my particular
gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Nadarajah Sriskandarajah, Department
of Urban and Rural development, the Unit of Environmental
Communication SLU, Professor Tarla Rai Peterson, Department of Wildlife
& Fisheries Texas A&M University, USA and Dr. Habtemariam Kassa,
CIFOR, Ethiopia, for their guidance, intellectual inspiration and
encouragement for the accomplishment of the research. Similarly, I am
grateful to my former supervisors who were at SLU, Professor Kjell
Havnevik and Dr. Neil Powell. I am also grateful to a colleague in my
department, Dr. Hans Peter Hansen for the many discussions we have had in
recent months and the keen interest he has shown in the progress of my
work.

I extend my thanks to Sida, Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural
Resources of Hawassa University and SLU which supported the study
program financially under the cooperation program between WGCF
NR/Sida/SLU. In this regard my special thanks go to Dr. Mats Sandewall
the program coordinator, and Dr Abdu Abdulkadir and Dr. Melaku Bekele.

My research work could not have materialized without the cooperation and
assistance of the farmers of the research sites whom I met and spoke for
numerous hours. I thank them for their generous offer of their time and for
sharing their knowledge. The Kebele executive committee and the
development agents of Debena, Busso, Arfayede, Mecheke and Dera, I
thank you for the valuable information and cooperation. Parallel to this,
special thanks go to the Konso Bureau of Agriculture and Rural
Development for creating a conducive working conditions in particular,