Table Of ContentLiving Language
3rd Edition
Series editors
Jane Bluett and
John Shuttleworth
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Contents
Introduction v
Key Concepts for Studying English 1
Introduction 1
1Semantics 4
Lexis or vocabulary 8
Grammar and syntax 11
Sound patterning and phonology 16
Language functions 20
Pragmatics 23
Context 26
Text and discourse 31
Intertextuality 34
Narrative 35
Cohesion and coherence 40
Rhetoric 42
Language and Social Contexts 49
Exploring language variation 49
2 Language and gender 60
Language variation across Britain 71
Changing technology and language use 83
Language and occupation 88
Power relationships and language 91
Investigating Language 116
What is a language investigation? 116
3 How to structure a language investigation 121
Ideas for language investigations 130
The creative element 148
Creating Your Own Texts 160
Getting started 161
4 Writing to entertain 164
Writing to persuade 189
Writing to inform 200
Writing to instruct 215
Writing commentaries on your work 220
How Language Develops 232
Language acquisition 232
Language change 268
5
Glossary 306
Introduction
Who are you?
If you are reading this book, then you probably
● already have some experience in studying and enjoying English Language at GCSE
● are studying English Language at either AS or A2 level
● are aware of some of the relevant ideas behind the subject and are familiar with ways of
writing about it.
Obviously Living Language is primarily intended as an introduction to AS- and A-level
English Language. However, it will also be useful if you are studying English Language &
Literature.
In this introduction we explain
● the differences between GCSE and A level
● how this book relates to the Assessment Objectives for the English Language
specifications.
Bridging the gap: from GCSE to A level
You will find that moving from GCSE to A level is a big step, but not a step that you are
unprepared for, nor one that will be too great. This is because there is an intermediate stage
in A-level study which means that everyone has to sit an Advanced Subsidiary (AS)
examination before proceeding to A level. Many people will take this examination at the end
of the first year of their course, but it can be taken at other times, depending on how your
course is organised. The AS exam is pitched at a standard in between A level and GCSE, so
that, at the beginning of your A-level course, you are faced with less of a mountain to climb.
You do not have to move on from AS to A level unless you wish to do so.
Your exams are now connected like this:
GCSE English
AS English Language A-level English Language
GCSE English Literature
end of course end of course end of course
GCSE English GCSE English Literature
Shakespeare Shakespeare
Prose – one of these has to be pre-1914 Prose
Poetry Poetry
Non-fiction texts Drama
Media texts Comparisons between texts
A range of speaking and listening activities Literary tradition
A range of writing activities Cultural contexts
v
Introduction
AS English Language
This requires you to show knowledge and understanding of
■ the key features of the following areas of language study:
◆ phonology (sound and intonation patterns of speech)
◆ lexis (vocabulary)
◆ grammar (of both spoken and written texts)
◆ semantics and pragmatics (the ways meanings are constructed and interpreted in both
speech and writing)
■ the ways language varies according to whether it is written or spoken and according to the
context in which it is produced
■ the ways language varies according to personal and social factors
■ the ways that variations in language can shape and change meanings and forms.
In addition you need to be able to
■ write appropriately and accurately for a variety of audiences and purposes and comment on
what you have produced.
A-level English Language (in addition to AS requirements)
This requires you to show deeper knowledge and understanding of
■ areas of language study
■ the ways in which historical and geographical variation shape and change meanings and
forms in language
■ the ways in which human language develops. (This may be a requirement of AS study
depending on the specification you are following.)
You need also to be able to
■ comment on and evaluate the usefulness of your application and exploration of these
systematic approaches to the study of spoken and written texts, including texts from
the past.
So how is GCSE different from AS and A level? Naturally, there is continuity with English
Language GCSE, as you would expect. There you had to write pieces for different purposes
and had to study a range of non-fiction and non-literary texts. These feature again at AS and
A level, but in addition you will be studying some spoken texts.You will also be studying
how spoken and written language is structured and organised.
In general terms, to succeed beyond GCSE you obviously need to enjoy studying language.
You will also need to be prepared to study texts from outside your own time and culture,
thus expanding your horizons. As you continue your studies, the methods you use will
become as important as the content of the course. This is why how you approach a text is
just as important as what you say about it. Above all, you will need to be able to make your
own judgements about what you read and hear, coming closer to being an independent
informed reader and listener as you progress through the course.
The course you are following is already an excellent one designed to test your knowledge,
understanding and skills in English Language. However, the government has stipulated that
there should also be a number of Assessment Objectives whose purpose is to assess whether
you have achieved AS- or A-level standard and therefore whether you deserve an award in
the subject. The mark you achieve in each component of the course depends entirely on how
well you have demonstrated your ability to meet these Assessment Objectives, whether in
vi
Introduction
coursework or in an end-of-module examination. It’s as well, therefore, to know what these
Assessment Objectives are.
Here they are in full for AS and A level. Below each objective is a user-friendly explanation of
what exactly the objective requires.
Assessment Objectives
AO1 – Select and apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant
knowledge using appropriate terminology and coherent, accurate written expression.
Here you are being asked to show that you can write about language in a way that shows
you have studied it at an advanced level.You must be able to use technical terms effectively
and precisely and show your understanding of the areas of language study to which you
have been introduced.Your own written language must also be effective.You should learn to
apply your knowledge of language to your own writing. As a student of A-level English
Language you need to show that you can use accurate and well-constructed sentences.
AO2 – Demonstrate critical understanding of a range of concepts and issues relating
to the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using
knowledge of linguistic approaches.
Language concepts and issues are the ideas and opinions that surround the use of language
in all its forms.You need to understand a range of theories about language use as well as the
attitudes and values language expresses or provokes.You must show that you have engaged
with these ideas in a critical way and are able to challenge them – for example, political
correctness, how we acquire language, attitudes to accents.
AO3 – Analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and
reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key constituents
of language.
All language use, written or spoken, is dependent upon the context in which it occurs. Here
you must show that you are aware of the contextual factors at work. These will always
include audience and purpose as well as more specific contexts you may be asked to
consider, such as gender, power, occupation.
AO4 – Demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English in a range of different
contexts informed by linguistic study.
You will be expected to write effectively for a range of audiences and purposes.You need to
explore the writing process and develop your own skills as a writer.You need to show that
what you have studied in the course informs the writing you produce.Your creativity should
vii
Introduction
be shown in the way that you can manipulate language in a variety of ways. For example,
how would you present a complex idea to a non-specialist audience?
Addressing the new specifications
Whichever English Language specification you are studying, you will be required to produce
coursework and complete examination tasks that allow you to demonstrate the skills and
understanding outlined in the Assessment Objectives. Each specification will ask you to do
this in different ways. However, every A-level English Language student will be involved in
the following activities:
● writing for different audiences and purposes
● analysing a wide range of written and spoken texts and data
● applying systematic approaches to the study of language
● exploring how language is used in a wide variety of social contexts
● evaluating theories and concepts to do with language use
● learning about the way language develops.
Living Language addresses each of these modes of study, providing you with a range of
resources and activities designed to support you in your A-level course. As well as guiding
you towards exam success, Living Language will help you develop your own ideas about
language use and improve your skills as a language practitioner. We hope that you will find
this book a practical and informative guide to your journey through the English language.
Technical terms
Key technical terms are highlighted in blue the first time they occur in each chapter; these
terms are defined in the Glossary at the end of the book.
viii
Key Concepts for
Studying English 1
At the end of this chapter you should be able to
● select and apply a range of linguistic methods, to communicate relevant
knowledge using appropriate terminology and coherent, accurate written
expression (AO1)
● demonstrate critical understanding of a range of concepts and issues relating to
the construction and analysis of meanings in spoken and written language, using
knowledge of linguistic approaches (AO2)
● analyse and evaluate the influence of contextual factors on the production and
reception of spoken and written language, showing knowledge of the key
constituents of language (AO3)
● demonstrate expertise and creativity in the use of English in a range of different
contexts informed by linguistic study (AO4).
For a more student-friendly version of these Assessment Objectives, turn to page vii in
the Introduction.
Introduction
One of the most irritating things when you start a new academic subject is that you don’t
know the words, you can’t ‘talk the talk’, and you feel tongue-tied at best and totally
mystified at worst. This can happen all too easily when you are introduced to the study of
A-level English Language. Not only are you expected to know what people are talking about
when they refer lightly to grammar, lexis and syntax, but alarming phrases like language
concepts, diachronic change and phonological features may trip off the tongue of your
teachers. How will you ever manage, you wonder? Maybe you should have taken AS
Philosophy, Physics or PE instead?
The aim of this chapter is to create a sense of calm confidence in the face of any relevant
concept, term or theoretical position associated with the study of English Language so that
by the end of the chapter you can not only ‘talk the talk’but understand and – when
required – apply these concepts to real texts in English, whether they’re literary or non-
literary, spoken or written.
We start with the basic premise that language is either expressive (creative, conveying
feeling and mood, literary) or functional (pragmatic, getting things done, non-literary)
communication. (We shall be considering spoken and written English in this chapter, but
most of the ideas, concepts and terminology can be recognised in all human languages.)
Every language is structured in predictable patterns so that other speakers and writers
recognise those patterns and can start to make sense of what is being spoken or written.
(Babies learn from very early on to recognise the predictable patterns in the speech of their
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