Lithium Batteries: Science and Technology

626 Pages·2016·18.02 MB·English

by  Christian Julien

Christian Julien · Alain Mauger
Ashok Vijh · Karim Zaghib
Lithium
Batteries
Science and Technology
Lithium Batteries

Christian Julien • Alain Mauger • Ashok Vijh •
Karim Zaghib
Lithium Batteries
Science and Technology
ChristianJulien AlainMauger
PhysicochimiedesElectrolytes InstitutdeMine´ralogie,dePhysiquedes
etNanosyste`mesInterfaciaux Mate´riauxetdeCosmochimie
(PHENIX)UMR8234 (IMPMC)Muse´umd’HistoireNaturelle,
SorbonneUniversite´s InstitutdeRecherchepourle
UPMCUniv.Paris06 De´veloppementIRDUMR7590et206
Paris,France SorbonneUniversite´s,UPMCUnivParis06
Paris,France
AshokVijh
InstitutdeRecherches KarimZaghib
d’Hydro-Que´bec(IREQ) InstitutdeRecherches
Quebec,Que´bec,Canada d’Hydro-Que´bec(IREQ)
Quebec,Que´bec,Canada
ISBN978-3-319-19107-2 ISBN978-3-319-19108-9 (eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-19108-9
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015946613
SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon
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Preface
Energystoragebyrechargeablebatterieshascometooccupyacentralstageinthe
last couple of decades, because of the ubiquitous availability of internet-based
devicessuchaslaptopcomputers,smartphones,computingtablets,digitalcameras,
ande-bookreaders.
Theimportanceofbatterieshasbeenfurtheraugmentedbecauseoftheirusein
power tools and a variety of other portable devices including those used in tele-
medicine and tele-learning and in other needs of instant communication. And
finally, the drive to replace fossil fuel based cars, buses, etc. by hybrid vehicles
and electric vehicles has pushed the crucial role of these batteries to the societal
forefrontwheretheconjunctureofenergyandenvironmentalissuesisthemostvital
concern.
In this context, the research, development, and commercialization of increas-
inglymoreefficientanddurablebatteriesofhigherenergyandpowerdensitieshave
led to an immense field of intense activity. The number of published papers and
patents is staggering with a concomitant vast industrial activity on a variety of
batteries,especiallythosebasedonlithium.
Countlesssymposiaandconferenceshavebeendevotedtothisfield.Also,over
theyears,anumberofexcellentbookshavebeenpublished,mostlyeditedvolumes
containingchaptersbyleadingworkersinthefield.
Thus, the question arises, why another book on batteries? There are different
reasons: First, a major center of pure and applied research on modern lithium
batteries has formed at Hydro-Que´bec Research Institute, which employs the
authors of this book: we wish to present the field in terms of our experience and
understanding of this subject. Second, the previous books have been written by
batteryscientists;thebackgroundsofthepresentauthors,however,permitalookat
thisareathroughdifferentprisms:ChristianJulienandAlainMaugeraresolid-state
physicistsworkingonthematerialsaspectsofbatteries;AshokVijhisaninterfacial
electrochemistwhoisnewtothisfieldandthushasadifferentperspective;Karim
Zaghibistrainedasaelectrochemicalengineerandhasavastexperienceinbattery
science and technology. Third, the battery fires experienced not only in ground
v
vi Preface
transportbutalsoinairtransportgiveustheproofthatthewarningsofthescientific
communityhavenotbeenheard,orhavenotbeentakenintoconsiderationbythe
commercial car and plane companies in charge of the implementation and the
choiceoflithium-ionbatteries.Thepresentauthors,amongothers,havediscussed
thesesafetyproblemsindifferentscientificreviewsthatobviouslywerenotreadby
the engineersinthe Procurement department andincharge ofthe managementof
thesecompanies.Inthiscontext,wefeltusefultofocusmoreattentiononthesafety
aspectsinabookthatisalsointendedtoreachabroaderaudienceintheindustrial
communitythanthescientificreviews.
Fourth,importantprogressinthelaboratorieshasbeenmadeinthelast4yearsin
the nanotechnology to synthesize porous nanoparticles and/or prepare composites
ofnanoparticleswithaconductiveelementsuchasgrapheneorcarbonnanotubes,
or bynano-paintingthe particlesby a conductive layer. Some ofthesetechniques
arescalable,andwehopethattheywillpermitthedevelopmentofanewgeneration
ofLi-ionbatteriesinaverynearfuture.Onegoalofthisbookisalsotoinformthe
readerofthisadvanceinresearchanddiscussthescalingaspect.
Finally,we wanted to write abookthat emphasizes the materials aspects, both
theirbulkandinterfacialproperties,asdistinctfrommanyotheraspectsofbattery
technology.Thusthisbookreflectsourbeliefthatanyfutureprogressinthefurther
study of batteries will be based on the fundamental physicochemical aspects of
batterymaterials.Inthiscontext,itisnotoutofplacetopointoutherethatevenin
the past, the major strides in lithium batteries were also based on a fundamental
understanding of the physics and chemistry of battery materials: the supreme
exampleofthisapproachistheworkofJohnGoodenough.
Paris,France ChristianJulien
Paris,France AlainMauger
Quebec,Que´bec,Canada AshokVijh
Quebec,Que´bec,Canada KarimZaghib
Contents
1 BasicElementsforEnergyStorageandConversion. . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 EnergyStorageAbility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 TheSustainedEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 EnergyStorageforNano-electronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 EnergyStorage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 BriefHistoryofElectrochemicalCells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.1 Milestones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2 BatteryDesigns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 KeyParametersofBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 BasicParameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.2 CycleLifeandCalendarLife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6.3 Energy,CapacityandPower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.7 ElectrochemicalSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.1 Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.7.2 ElectrochromicsandSmart
Windows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7.3 Supercapacitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.8 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 LithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 HistoricalOverview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 PrimaryLithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 HighTemperatureLithium
Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.2 Solid-StateElectrolyte
LithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.3 LiquidCathodeLithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.4 SolidCathodeLithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
vii
viii Contents
2.4 SecondaryLithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1 Lithium-MetalBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.2 Lithium-IonBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.3 LithiumPolymerBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4.4 Lithium-SulfurBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5 EconomyofLithiumBatteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6 BatteryModeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3 PrinciplesofIntercalation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 IntercalationMechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3 TheGibbs’PhaseRule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 ClassificationofIntercalationReactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4.1 ThePerfectlyNonstoichiometricCompounds:
Type-IElectrode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4.2 ThePseudoTwo-PhaseSystem:
Type-IIElectrode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4.3 TheTwo-PhaseSystem:Type-IIIElectrode. . . . . . . 79
3.4.4 TheAdjacentDomain:Type-IVElectrode. . . . . . . . 80
3.5 IntercalationinLayeredCompounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5.1 SynthesisofICs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.5.2 AlkaliIntercalationintoLayered
Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6 ElectronicEnergyinICs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.7 OriginoftheHighVoltageinICs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.8 LithiumBatteryCathodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.9 ConversionReaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.10 AlloyingReaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4 ReliabilityoftheRigid-BandModelinLithium
IntercalationCompounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2 EvolutionoftheFermiLevel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3 ElectronicStructureofTMDs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4 LithiumIntercalationinTiS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2
4.5 LithiumIntercalationinTaS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2
4.6 LithiumIntercalationin2H-MoS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2
4.7 LithiumIntercalationinWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2
4.8 LithiumIntercalationinInSe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.9 ElectrochemicalPropertiesofTMCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.10 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Contents ix
5 CathodeMaterialswithTwo-DimensionalStructure. . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.2 BinaryLayeredOxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.2.1 MoO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3
5.2.2 V O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2 5
5.2.3 LiV O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3 8
5.3 TernaryLayeredOxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.1 LiCoO (LCO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2
5.3.2 LiNiO (LNO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2
5.3.3 LiNi1(cid:2)yCoyO2(NCO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.3.4 DopedLiCoO (d-LCO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2
5.3.5 LiNi1(cid:2)y(cid:2)zCoyAlzO2(NCA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3.6 LiNi Mn O (NMO). . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 139
0.5 0.5 2
5.3.7 LiNi1(cid:2)y(cid:2)zMnyCozO2(NMC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.8 Li MnO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2 3
5.3.9 Li-RichLayeredCompounds(LNMC). . . . . . . . . . 147
5.3.10 OtherLayeredCompounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.4 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6 CathodeMaterialswithMonoatomicIons
inaThree-DimensionalFramework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.2 ManganeseDioxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.1 MnO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2
6.2.2 MnO -BasedComposites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2
6.2.3 MnO Nanorods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2
6.2.4 Birnessite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 170
6.3 LithiatedManganeseDioxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3.1 Li MnO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
0.33 2
6.3.2 Li MnO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
0.44 2
6.3.3 LiMnO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2
6.3.4 LixNa0.5(cid:2)xMnO2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4 LithiumManganeseSpinels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4.1 LiMn O (LMO). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2 4
6.4.2 SurfaceModifiedLMO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4.3 DefectSpinels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.4.4 LiDopedSpinels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.5 Five-VoltSpinels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.6 VanadiumOxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.6.1 V O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6 13
6.6.2 LiVO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2
6.6.3 VO (B). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2
6.7 ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192