Table Of ContentLiquid Rocket Thrust Chambers:
Aspects of Modeling, Analysis,
and Design
Edited by
Vigor Yang
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity
UniversityPark,Pennsylvania
Mohammed Habiballah
OfficeNationald’EtudesetdeRecherchesAe´rospatiales
Chaˆtillon,France
JamesHulka
Jacobs-SverdrupTechnology,Inc.
Huntsville,Alabama
Michael Popp
PrattandWhitneySpacePropulsion
WestPalmBeach,Florida
Volume 200
PROGRESS IN
ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS
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Preface
Liquid-propellant rocket engines have been used as the primary propulsion
systemsinmostlaunchvehiclesandspacecraftsincetheinitialconquestofspace.
Eight decades after their first fabrication and test, however, many aspects of
modeling,analysis,anddesignofthrustchambersfortheseenginesstillpresent
important challenges. Certainly one reason for this continued challenge is the
complexity of the problem; although the basic concepts are well established,
many of the detailed physiochemical processes of liquid-propellant combustion
remain unresolved. Another reason is the difficulty and significant expense of
conducting research and development in the harsh and hazardous environments
ofliquidrocketthrustchambers.Improvementsinperformanceforfuturerocket
engines may require that internal pressures and heat flux, already substantial,
continuetoincrease,renderingtheproblemevenmorechallenging.Furthermore,
any design work addressing performance, life, reliability, and safety for future
thrust chamber development will benefit greatly from an improved under-
standingofthechemicalandphysicalprocessesandtheresultingformulationand
useof suitable models that can beincorporated into advancedanalysistools.
Investments in this field have slowed over the past 30 years, and important
resultsandreferencepublicationseitherhavedisappearedorhavenotbeenmade
widelyorpubliclyavailable.TheUnitedStatesandtheformerSovietUnionhave
made only sporadic investments since their significant advancements in the
1950s, ’60s, and ’70s. Europe, China, and Japan, on the other hand, have made
major investments in recent decades. At the same time, there have been
significant improvements in computational and experimental techniques, and a
growingpracticalexperiencewithfull-scalerocketenginesworldwide,thathave
advanced the state of the art. Unfortunately, the smaller scale and narrower
dissemination of the literature on this work have limited the widespread
utilization of these advances. Existing publications are scattered throughout
various journals, technical reviews, conference proceedings, and progress
reports.
Thereisconsequentlyadistinctneedforacomprehensivetexttoorganizeand
make readily available the latest results and developments, and to promote
additionalinsight,research,andcollaborationonthetopicsofmodeling,analysis,
and design of liquid rocket thrust chambers. There has not been a major
publicationonthistopicsinceLiquidRocketsandPropellants,in1960.(Volume
2 inthe AIAAProgress inAeronautics andAstronautics Series, edited by L.E.
Bollinger, M. Goldsmith, and A. W. Lemmon, Jr.) A volume to capture and
presenttherecentadvancesandcurrentunderstandinginthefieldwastherefore
considered an important contribution to the research, industrial, and academic
communities involved in the design, development, and testing of liquid rocket
thrust chambers.
xvii
xviii
The present volume compiles results from many of the research and
development programs conducted over the last several decades across the
international community. One of the driving interests behind the production of
thisvolumewastocovertheinternationalscope,whichwasmadepossiblebythe
significantchangesin the politicallandscape over the past decade.
The original material and impetus for this volume came from the Second
International Symposium on Liquid Rocket Propulsion, hosted by l’Office
National d’Etudes et deRecherches Ae´rospatiales,at Chaˆtillon,France, inJune
of1995.Thismeetingwasthesecondinaseriesofsymposiadesignedtoprovide
opentechnicalexchangesacrosstheinternationalcommunityintheliquidrocket
field. At the symposium, technical presentations were made by leading experts
from eight countries, including nearly every major governmental and corporate
organization.Likeitspredecessor,thismeetingprovidedauniqueopportunityfor
presentation and discussion of work from the Commonwealth of Independent
States and from China that had notbeen seen previouslyinthe West.
This volume is designed as a reference text, with a balance of fundamental
scientific and technological works. It is organized into five subject areas,
consistent with a stepwise approach through the design and analysis of thrust
chambers,including:1)injectionandatomizationprocesses;2)combustionand
ignitionprocesses;3)nozzledesignandoptimization;4)chamberdynamics,heat
transfer, and performance; and 5) influence of engine system design. Twenty
chaptersareincluded,allpreparedandreviewedbyleadingexpertsinthisfield.
Thevolumecanbeusedandenjoyedbyengineers,researchers,andscientistsin
industry, government, and academia who are involved in rocket propulsion
research.Thestructuringofthisvolumeasareferencealsowillrenderitusefulto
those inotherfields involved inthe design ofcombustiondevices.
Vigor Yang
Mohammed Habiballah
James Hulka
MichaelPopp
November2004
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Chapter1 Propellant Injection Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . 1
JacksonI.ItoGenCorpAerojetPropulsionDivision,Sacramento,California
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
RocketApplicationDesignRequirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
ThrustLevelandOperatingPressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
PropellantType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
EngineCycleorFeedSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
CommonCombustionDeviceDevelopmentRisks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
CombustionInstability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
CombustionChamberOverheatingandBurnout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
InjectorFaceErosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
LowThrustChamberAssemblyPerformance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
UnsafeTransients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
InjectionSystemDesignConsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
EnginePressureSchedule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
NozzleExpansionRatio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ContractionRatio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ChamberLength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
InjectionElementandPattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
CriticalCombustionProcesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
InjectorManifoldDistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
InjectorSprayAtomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
PropellantDropletVaporization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
BipropellantMixing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CandidateInjectorsforLiquidRocketApplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CoaxialJetInjectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
ImpingingJetInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ParallelJet(Showerhead)Injectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
InjectorDesignSynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
ConclusionsandRecommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter2 Design and Dynamics ofJet and Swirl Injectors . . . . . . . 19
VladimirBazarovMoscowAviationInstitute,Moscow,RussiaandVigorYang
andPuneeshPuriPennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark,Pennsylvania
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
ClassificationofInjectorsandMethodsofMixtureFormation . . . . . . . . . 22
vii
viii
LiquidInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Gas-LiquidInjectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
IntensificationofPropellantAtomizationandMixinginLiquidInjectors . . 41
IntensificationofPropellantAtomizationandMixinginGas-LiquidInjectors . 45
TheoryandDesignofLiquidMonopropellantJetInjectors. . . . . . . . . . 45
FlowCharacteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
EffectofInjectorConfiguration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
FlowCoefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
DesignProcedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
TheoryandDesignofGaseousMonopropellantJetInjectors. . . . . . . . . 51
FlowCharacteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
DesignProcedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
TheoryandDesignofGas-LiquidJetInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
TheoryandDesignofLiquidMonopropellantSwirlInjectors . . . . . . . . 56
FlowCharacteristicsofIdealSwirlInjector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
FlowCharacteristicsofRealSwirlInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
EffectofViscosityonInjectorOperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
DesignProcedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
TheoryandDesignofLiquidBipropellantSwirlInjectors . . . . . . . . . 72
InjectorswithExternalMixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
InjectorswithInternalMixing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ModulationofLiquidSprayCharacteristicsofSwirlInjectors. . . . . . . . 77
DesignofGasSwirlInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
DesignProcedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
SelectionofGeometricDimensionsandFlowParameters. . . . . . . . . . . . 89
DynamicsofLiquidRocketInjectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
LinearDynamicsofJetInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
LinearDynamicsofSwirlInjectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Chapter3 Atomization inCoaxial-JetInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
LucienVingertandPierreGicquelONERA,Palaiseau,France,MichelLedoux
andIsabelleCare´ CORIA,Universite´ deRouen,Rouen,France,and
MichaelMicciandMichaelGlogowskiPennsylvaniaStateUniversity,
UniversityPark,Pennsylvania
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
PhenomenologicalDescriptionandLiteratureReview. . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
GeneralSchemeofJetDisintegrationandDropFormation . . . . . . . . . . . 106
StudiesofElementaryProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
NumericalSimulationsoftheAtomizationProcess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
DerivationofDropletSizeDistributionFunctions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
InvestigationsofAtomizationinShearCoaxialInjectors . . . . . . . . . . . 111
ExperimentalandTheoreticalInvestigationatAtmosphericPressurewith
Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
PhotographicStudiesUsingCryogenicFluids(Liquid/GaseousNitrogen). . . 125
LOXSprayCombustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
ix
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Chapter4 Liquid Bipropellant Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
WilliamE.Anderson,MatthewR.Long,andStephenD.HeisterPurdue
University,WestLafayette,Indiana
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
ImpingingJetInjector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
GeneralDescription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
ApplicationsandDesignGuidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
MechanisticStudy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
ModelingApproaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
BicentrifugalSwirlInjector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
GeneralDescription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
ApplicationsandDesignGuidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
ModelingApproaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
PintleInjector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
GeneralDescription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
ApplicationsandDesignGuidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
MechanisticStudy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
SummaryandConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Chapter5 Distortion and Disintegration of Liquid Streams. . . . . . . 167
WilliamA.SirignanoandCarstenMehringUniversityofCalifornia,Irvine,
California
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
FormulationofGoverningEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
RoundJetAnalyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
TemporalStabilityAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
SurfaceEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
SpatialStabilityAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
NonlinearEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
ViscousEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
SprayControlviaElectricFields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
CoaxialJets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
PlanarSheetAnalyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
LinearTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
FanSheets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
SimplifiedBreakupTheories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
NonlinearTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
AnnularFreeFilms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
LinearTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
NonlinearTheory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
EffectofSwirl. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
ConicalFreeFilms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
ConcludingRemarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
x
Acknowledgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chapter6 ModelingLiquid-Propellant Spray Combustion Processes 251
H.H.ChiuNationalCheng-KungUniversity,Taiwan,RepublicofChinaand
J.C.OefeleinSandiaNationalLaboratories,Livermore,California
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
FundamentalFormulationforTwo-PhaseFlow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
LocalInstantaneousEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
AveragedEquations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
DecompositionofVariablesandAveragingProcedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
BasicModelingApproaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Eulerian-LagrangianFormulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
DynamicTransportandHeatTransferEquationsofaDrop. . . . . . . . . . . 261
Non-DiluteSprayModels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
MorphologicalandKineticModels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
TurbulenceGenerationandModulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Drop-TurbulenceInteractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
DropDispersionModels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
DropGasificationandWake-InducedTurbulenceModulation. . . . . . . . . . 269
Two-WayCouplingModelforInterphaseExchangeofK andE . . . . . . . 275
sp sp
ModulationoftheTurbulentEnergySpectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
CollectivePhenomenainCombustingSprays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Drop-BasedSprayModel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
ConfigurationandStructureofGroupCombustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
MultiphaseCombustionatSupercriticalConditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
GeneralScalingLawforFlameRadius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
ScalingLawfortheInitialFlameExpansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
ScalingLawfortheMaximumFlameRadius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Chapter7 Liquid-Propellant Droplet Vaporizationand Combustion 295
VigorYang,PatrickLafon,andGeorgeC.HsiaoPennsylvaniaStateUniversity,
UniversityPark,Pennsylvania,MohammedHabiballahONERA,Chaˆtillon,
France,andFeng-ChenZhuangInstituteofCommandTechnology,Beijing,
China
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
ThermodynamicandTransportProperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
ExtendedCorresponding-StatePrinciple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
EquationofState . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
ThermodynamicProperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
TransportProperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Vapor-LiquidPhaseEquilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
DropletVaporizationinQuiescentEnvironments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
CryogenicPropellants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
HydrocarbonPropellants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
HypergolicPropellants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
xi
DropletVaporizationinConvectiveEnvironments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
DropletCombustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
DropletResponsetoAmbientFlowOscillation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Hydrocarbon/AirSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Oxygen/HydrogenSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Chapter8 Subcritical/Supercritical Droplet ClusterBehavior
inDenseand Dilute Regions of Sprays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
JosetteBellanJetPropulsionLaboratory,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,
Pasadena,California
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
ClustersofBinary-SpeciesDropsinAir(Subcritical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
ClustersofFluidO DropsinH (Supercritical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
2 2
SummaryandConclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter9 Fundamentals ofSupercritical Mixing and Combustion
ofCryogenic Propellants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
WolfgangO.H.MayerDLR,GermanAerospaceResearchCenter,Hardthausen,
GermanyandJoshuaJ.SmithUniversityofAdelaide,Adelaide,Australia
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Cold-FlowResearch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Single-ComponentSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Cold-FlowInvestigationExperimentalSetup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Single-ComponentBehavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Binary-ComponentSystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
CombustingFlowResearch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
ExperimentalProcedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
SubcriticalCombustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
SupercriticalCombustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
PrincipalFlowCharacteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
OxygenJetBreakup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
FlameStructureandRadiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Flame-HoldingMechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
PropellantInterfacePhenomena. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
EffectsofInjectorDesignonFlowfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
IgnitionTransients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
xii
Chapter10 CARS Measurements at High Pressurein Cryogenic
LOX/GH Jet Flames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
2
F.Grisch,P.Bouchardy,andL.VingertONERA,PalaiseauCedex,France,
W.ClaussandM.OschwaldDLR,Hardthausen,Germany,and
O.M.Stel’mackandV.V.SmirnovAcademyofSciencesofRussia,
Moscow,Russia
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
ExperimentalFacilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
MascotteFacility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
P8Facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
CARSOverview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
ProbeSpeciesinLOX/GH Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
2
Hydrogen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
WaterVapor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
ExperimentalSetup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
H DataReduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2
H ODataReduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
2
FlameMeasurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Chapter11 Propellant Ignition and FlamePropagation. . . . . . . . . . 405
EricA.HurlbertandRobertJ.MorelandNASAJohnsonSpaceCenter,Houston,
TexasandSebastienCandelE´coleCentraleParisandCNRS,
Chatenay-Malabry,France
Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
GeneralBackgroundandFundamentalConsiderations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
AutoignitionofHomogeneousVolumeofReactants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
MinimumIgnitionEnergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
EffectsofTurbulenceandDropletEvaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
PropagationfromaFlameKernel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
CompressibilityEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
NumericalModelingofIgnitionProcesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
IgnitionofNonhypergolicPropellants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
ThermalIgnitionDevices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
ResonantIgnitionDevices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
CatalyticIgnitionDevices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Third-ChemicalorHypergolicIgnitionDevices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
PhotochemicalLaserIgnition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
SparkIgnitionDevices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
HypergolicPropellantIgnition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
DesignConsiderationsforHypergolicEngineIgnition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
PhysicalProcessesOccurringDuringIgnitionTransient. . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
ModelingofHypergolicIgnitionTransient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
